SQLite format 3@  44tabletexttextCREATE TABLE "text" ( "old_id" int(8) NOT NULL, "old_text" text NOT NULL, "old_flags" text NOT NULL, PRIMARY KEY ("old_id") )';indexsqlite_autoindex_text_1textQ{uoic]WQ?ǁ>0n,m';&8%$rG ́ }~b{Ty)jbZH0@? VUDCd philosophy|political philosophies]] and related [[social movement]]s that advocate the elimination of authoritarian institutions, particularly the [[state]]. Most anarchists also oppose [[capitalism]], though some theorists have espoused [[anarcho-capitalism]]. In place of authoritarian political structures and coercive economic institutions, anarchists advocate social relations they claim to be based upon [[voluntary association]] of autonomous individuals, [[mutual aid]], and [[self-governance]]. While anarchism is defined by what it is against, anarchists also offer positive visions of what they believe to be a truly free society. The word \"[[anarchy]],\" as anarchists use it, does not imply [[chaos]] or [[anomie]], but rather a harmonious [[anti-authoritarian]] society. However, ideas about how an anarchist society might work vary considerably, especially with respect to economics. Also, there is disagreement about how a free society might be brought about. === Origins of anarchism === {{wikiquote}} [[Kropotkin]], and others, argue that before recorded [[history]], human society was organized on anarchist principles.{{ref|Kropotkin_MutualAid}} Some anthropologists follow Kropotkin and Engels in believing that hunter-gatherer bands had an egalitarian structure due lack of a division of labour, accumulated wealth, or decreed law.{{ref|Engels_OriginsoftheFamily}} Anarchists including the [[The Anarchy Organisation]] and [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard]] find anarchist attitudes in the philosophy of [[Taoism]] in [[History of China|Ancient China]]. {{ref|toxicpop}} {{ref|lewrockwell}}. [[Peter Kropotkin|Kropotkin]] found an early instance of anarchist philosophy in the ideas of [[stoicism|stoic]] [[Zeno of Citium]]. According to Kropotkin, Zeno \"repudiated the omnipotence of the state, its intervention and regimentation, and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual\". {{ref|blackcrayon}} [[Image:WilliamGodwin.jpg|thumb|right|William Godwin]] The [[Anabaptist]]s of [[16th century]] Europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism. [[Bertrand Russell]], in his ''[[history of Western philosophy|History of Western Philosophy]]'', writes that the Anabaptists \"repudiated all law, since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by [[the Holy Spirit]]...[f]rom this premise they arrive at [[communism]]....\"{{ref|Russell_WesternPhilosophy}} [[Diggers (True Levellers)|The Diggers]] or \"True Levellers\" were an early communistic movement during the time of the [[English Civil War]], and are considered by some as forerunners of modern anarchism.{{red|Brit94}} The first use of the term ''anarchy'' in the [[modern era]] to mean something other than chaos was by [[Louis-Armand de Lom d'Arce de Lahontan, Baron de Lahontan|Louis-Armand, Baron de Lahontan]] in his ''Nouveaux voyages dans l'Amérique septentrionale'', (1703), where he described the [[Native Americans in the United States|indigenous American]] society, which had no state, laws, prisons, priests, or private property, as being in anarchy {{ref|virginiaedu}}. [[Russell Means]], a [[libertarian]] and leader in the [[American Indian Movement]], has repeatedly stated that he is \"an anarchist, and so are all [his] ancestors.\" The first modern essay explicitly advocating the absence of government was ''A Vindication of Natural Society'' (1756) {{ref|libertyfund}} by [[Edmund Burke]], although most historians believe this to be a [[satire]]. The first positive theory of anarchism was [[William Godwin]]'s ''An Enquiry Concerning Political Justice'' (1793) {{ref|enqjustice}}. This was a very influential tract; though he did not use the word ''anarchism'', some today regard him as the \"founder of philosophical anarchism.\" The themes of his work would become central to the future development of anarchism. But at this point no anarchist movement yet existed, and the term ''anarchiste'' was known only as an insult hurled by the [[bourgeois]] [[Girondins]] at more radical elements in the [[French revolution]]. Other liberal anarchists include [[Gustave de Molinari]], [[Thomas Hodgskin]], [[Auberon Herbert]], and [[Herbert Spencer]]. ===The first self-labelled anarchist=== {{main|Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Mutualism}} It is commonly held that it wasn't until [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] published ''[[What is Property?]]'' in 1840 that the term \"anarchist\" was adopted as a self-description. It is for this reason that some claim Proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory. In What is Property Proudhon answers with the famous accusation \"[[Property is theft]].\" In this work he opposed the institution of \"property\" (propriété), Ian where owners have complete rights to 'use and abuse' their property as they wish. In its place Proudhon supported what he called 'possession' - individuals can have limited rights to use resources, capital and goods in accordance with principles of equality and justice. However, it should be noted that in late r works Proudhon modified his ideas on property {{fact}}: in his ''Theory of Property'' he argues that property, in the full [[Roman Law]] sense he had previously opposed, is a necessary counterweight to the centralising force of the state. One of his famous statements is that \"anarchy is order\", which is believed by some to be the source of the circled-A. Proudhon's vision of anarchy, which he called [[mutualism]] (mutuellisme), involved an exchange economy where individuals and groups could trade the fruits of their labor by using labor-backed money (labor notes). The use of labor notes would insure that no one purchased a good with less of his own labor than the labor undertaken to produce the good he was purchasing. Hence, with labor notes, profitless transactions would be facilitated. Proudhon's ideas were influential within French working class movements, and his followers were active in the [[Revolution of 1848]] in France. ===Max Stirner's Egoism=== {{main|Max Stirner|Egoism}} Anarchists som etimes avoid criticisms of their [[ideology]] by claiming that these criticisms are part of the ideology. In his ''The Ego and Its Own'' Stirner argued that most commonly accepted social institutions - including the notion of property as a right and the very notion of society itself - were mere illusions or ''ghosts'', saying of society that \"the individuals are its reality.\" He advocated a form of amoralism, in which individuals would unite in 'associations of egoists' only when it was in their self interest to do so. For him, property simply comes about through might: \"Whoever knows how to take, to defend, the thing, to him belongs property.\" And, \"What I have in my power, that is my own. So long as I assert myself as holder, I am the proprietor of the thing.\" Stirner's ideas were influential on a wide range of anarchists, although interpretations of his thought are various. For example, American Individualist [[Benjamin Tucker]]'s ideas on property were founded on egoism, as he believed that p roperty could only come about by self-interested parties contracting to establish it: \"the right of might and the right of contract - are the only rights that ever have been or ever can be.\" ===American individualist anarchism=== [[Image:BenjaminTucker.jpg|thumb|left|[[Benjamin Tucker]]]] {{main|Individualist anarchism|American individualist anarchism}} In 1825 [[Josiah Warren]] had participated in a [[communitarian]] experiment headed by [[Robert Owen]] called [[New Harmony]], which failed in a few years amidst much internal conflict. Warren blamed the community's failure on a lack of [[individual sovereignty]] and a lack of private property. Warren proceeded to organise experimenal anarchist communities which respected what he called \"the sovereignty of the individual' at [[Utopia (anarchist community)|Utopia]] and [[Modern Times]] In 1833 Warren wrote and published ''The Peaceful Revolutionist'', which some have noted to be the first anarchist periodical ever published. Benjamin Tucker says that Warren \"was the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as Anarchism.\" (''Liberty'' XIV (December, 1900):1) [[Benjamin Tucker]] became interested in anarchism through meeting Josiah Warren and [[William B. Greene]]. He edited and published ''Liberty'' from August 1881 to April 1908; it is widely considered to be the finest individualist-anarchist periodical ever issued in the English language. Tucker's conception of individualist anarchism incorporated the ideas of a variety of theorists: Greene's ideas on [[mutualism|mutual banking]]; Warren's ideas on [[cost the limit of price|cost as the limit of price]] (a [[heterodox economics|heterodox]] variety of [[labour theory of value]]); [[Proudhon]]'s market anarchism; [[Max Stirner]]'s [[egoism]]; and, [[Herbert Spencer]]'s \"law of equal freedom\". Tucker strongly supported \"[[private property]]\" in the product of labor and a [[market economy]] for trading in private property. The economic system of the individualists was called ''[[mutualism (economic theory)|mutualism]]'', which differs from capitalism, as it sees profit as subverting labor-value, therefore being [[exploitation]]; and socialism, as it sees collective ownership as subverting self-ownership. Tucker believed that in a laissez-faire system, the ability to make a profit would be nearly non-existent due to an abundance of economic competition. Other 19th century individualists include [[Lysander Spooner]], [[Stephen Pearl Andrews]], and [[Victor Yarros]]. Unlike anarcho-communists, the individualists aimed for equality of opportunity rather than equality of wealth. As [[Laurance Labadie]] explains: \"In a world where inequality of ability is inevitable, anarchists do not sanction any attempt to produce equality by artificial or authoritarian means. The only equality they posit and will strive their utmost to defend is the equality of opportunity.\" (''Anarchism Applied to Economics'') Political historian [[Carl Levy]] writes that \"Since [[World War II]], this tradition has been reborn and modified in the United States as [[anarcho-capitalism]] or [[libertarianism]].\" {{ref|encarta}} However, labor-value individualist anarchism is still extant today, primarily in the United States, and is currently espoused by [[Joe Peacott]] and [[Kevin Carson]]. ===The First International=== {{main|International Workingmen's Association|Anarchism and Marxism}} In Europe, harsh reaction followed the revolutions of 1848. Twenty years later in 1864 the [[International Workingmen's Association]], sometimes called the 'First International', united some diverse European revolutionary currents including anarchism. Due to its genuine links to active workers movements the International became signficiant. [[Image:Bakuninfull.jpg|thumb|right|[[Bakunin|Mikhail Bakunin 1814-1876]]]] From the start [[Karl Marx]] was a leading figure in the International: he was elected to every succeeding General Council of the association. The first objections to Marx came from the [[Mutualism|Mutualists]] who opposed communism and statism. Shortly after [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and his followers joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. The clearest difference between the camps was over strategy. The anarchists around Bakunin favoured (in Kropotkin's words) \"direct economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation.\" At that time Marx and his followers focused on parliamentary activity. Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as [[authoritarian]], and predicted that if a Marxist party gained to power its leaders would end up as bad as the [[ruling class]] they had fought against. {{ref|litencyc}} In 1872 the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the [[Hague Congress (1872)|Hague Congress]]. This is often cited as the origin of the [[Anarchist_objections_to_marxism|conflict between anarchists and Marxists]]. From this moment the ''[[Social democracy|social democratic]]'' and ''[[Libertarian socialism|libertarian]]'' currents of socialism had distinct organisations including rival [[List of left-wing internationals|'internationals'.]] ===Anarchist Communism=== {{main|Anarchist communism}} Proudhon and Bakunin both opposed [[communism]], which in their time was strongly associated with the statist ideas of thinkers such as [[Étienne Cabet]]. However, in the early 1870s the majority of Bakunin's followers moved away from Bakunin's philosophy (called \"collectivism\"), and embraced a new anarchist theory incorporating many communist concepts.{{ref|bakunin-f}} Anarcho-communists believe in the collectivization of the products of labor, as opposed to private ownership. [[Carlo Cafiero]], a member of the Italian section of the International which embraced anarchist communism at its 1876 congress, explained in his ''Anarchy and Communism'' : \"If we preserve the individual appropriation of the products of labour, we would be forced to preserve money, leaving more or less accumulation of wealth according to more or less merit rather than need of individuals.\" This position was anticipated by [[Joseph Déjacque]], notable as the first person to describe himself as a \"[[libertarian socialism|libertarian]]\". {{ref|dejacque1}} {{ref|dejacque2}} He argued for the satisfaction of human needs over remuneration of labour in his US published journal ''Le Libertaire'' (1858-1861), rejecting the Proudhonian support of individual ownership of the product of labor and markets. He wrote a letter admonishing Proudon saying: \"it is not the product of his or her labor that the worker has a right to, but to the satisfaction of his or her needs, whatever may be their nature.\" [[Image:PeterKropotkin.jpg|thumb|right|Peter Kropotkin]] [[Peter Kropotkin]] was the most important nineteenth century proponent of [[anarchist communism]]. In ''[[The Conquest of Bread]]'' and ''[[Fields, Factories and Workshops]]'' Kropotkin outlined anarchist communist society and how to achieve it. Kropotkin's communism was based on his theory of [[mutual aid]] where co-operation is more beneficial than competition, illustrated in nature in ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution]]'' (1897). Subsequent anarchist communists include [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]]. The [[anarcho-syndicalist]] movements (see below) generally saw anarchist communism as their objective. [[Isaac Puente]]'s 1932 ''Comunismo Libertario'' was adopted by the Spanish [[CNT]] as its manifesto for an anarchist communist society. Some anarchists disliked this merging of communism with anarchism. They maintained that abolition of private property was not consistent with liberty. For example, Benjamin Tucker, whilst professing respect for Kropotkin and publishing his work{{ref|Tucker-Kropotkin}}, described communist anarchism as \"pseudo-anarchism\". {{ref|Tucker-LAIP}} The view that anarcho-communism is not anarchism was the view of several individualist anarchists. ===Propaganda of the deed=== [[Image:JohannMost.jpg|left|thumb|[[Johann Most]] was an outspoken advocate of violence]] {{main|Propaganda of the deed}} Anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent, due mainly to a number of high-profile violent acts including [[riot]]s, [[assassination]]s, [[insurrection]]s, and [[terrorism]] by some anarchists. Some [[revolution]]aries of the late 19th century encouraged acts of political violence, such as [[bomb]]ings and the [[assassination]]s of [[head of state|heads of state]] to further anarchism. Such actions have sometimes been called '[[propaganda by the deed]]'. One of the more outspoken advocates of this strategy was [[Johann Most]], who said \"the existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents. Therefore, massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion.\" Most's preferred method of terrorism, dynamite, earned him the moniker \"Dynamost.\" However, there is no [[consensus]] on the legitimacy or utility of violence in general. [[Mikhail Bakunin]] and [[Errico Malatesta]], for example, wrote of violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force. At the same time, they both denounced violence and terrorist acts (Malatesta in \"On Violence\" and Bakunin when he refuted Nechaev). Other anarchists, sometimes identified as [[anarcho-pacifists|pacifist anarchists]], share a belief in [[nonviolence]]. [[Leo Tolstoy]], whose philosophy is often viewed as a form of [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchism]], believed that [[nonviolent resistance]] was the only method to achieve any lasting social change. For Tolstoy and other pacifists all violence is illegitimate, irrespective of whether it is perpetrated by the state or by its opponents. ===Anarchism in the labour movement=== {{seealso|Anarcho-syndicalism}} [[Image:Flag of Anarcho syndicalism.svg|thumb|175px|The red-and-black flag, coming from the experience of anarchists in the labour movement, is particularly associated with anarcho-syndicalism.]] Anarcho-syndicalism and Industrial Unionism are two early 20th century working class industrial movements which sought to overthrow capitalism, states and institute a worker controlled society. In the late 19th century, [[anarcho-syndicalism]] developed as a movement pursuing [[industrial action]]s, especially the [[general strike]], as the primary strategy to achieve anarchist revolution, and \"build the new society in the shell of the old\". Most anarcho-syndicalists shared a belief in [[anarchist communism]] as the best form of the future society, although not all anarchist communists agreed with syndicalism. After the [[Paris Commune|1871 repression]] French anarchism began to resurface and influenced the ''Bourses de Travails'' of autonomous workers groups and trade unions. From this movement the [[Confédération Générale du Travail]] (General Confederation of Work, CGT) was formed in 1895 as the first major anarcho-syndicalist movement. [[Emile Pataud]] and [[Emile Pouget]]'s writing for the CGT saw [[libertarian communism]] developing from a [[general strike]]. After 1914 the CGT moved away from anarcho-syndicalism due to the appeal of [[Bolshevism]]. French-style syndicalism was a significant movement in Europe prior to 1921, and remained a significant movement in Spain until the mid 1940s. The [[Industrial Workers of the World]] (IWW) was founded in 1905 in the United States. It espoused [[industrial unionism]], and sought to use the [[general strike]] to usher in an [[Industrial Commonwealth]] (a stateless society). At its peak in 1923 the organization claimed some 100,000 members in good standing, and could marshal the support of perhaps 300,000 workers. While not explicitly syndicalist or anarchist, the [[IWW]] organised using working class rank and file democracy, and embodied a spirit of resistance and freedom which has inspired many Anglophone syndicalists. [[Image:CNT_tu_votar_y_ellos_deciden.jpg|thumb|175px|CNT propaganda from April 2004. Reads: Don't let the politicians rule our lives/ You vote and they decide/ Don't allow it/ Unity, Action, Self-management.]] Spanish anarchist trade union federations were formed in the 1870's, 1900 and 1910. The most successful was the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo]] (National Confederation of Labour: CNT), was founded in 1910. Prior to the 1940s the CNT was the major force in Spanish working class politics. It had a membership of 1.58 million in 1934. The CNT played a major role in the [[Spanish Civil War]]. ''See also:'' [[Anarchism in Spain]]. In the 1910-1917 [[Mexican Revolution]] anarcho-syndicalists like [[Ricardo Flores Magón]] were key figures. This success has been influential for [[Latin America|Latin American]] anarchism. This influence extends to the [[Zapatista Army of National Liberation|Zapatista]] rebellion and the [[factory occupation movements]] in Argentina and elsewhere. In Berlin in 1922 the CNT was amongst trade unions who joined together to form the [[International Workers Association]], an anarcho-syndicalist successor to the [[First International]]. Contemporary anarcho-syndicalism continues as a minor force in many socities; much smaller than in the 1910s, 20s and 30s. The largest organised anarchist movement today is in Spain, in the form of the [[Confederación General del Trabajo]] and the [[CNT]]. The CGT claims a paid-up membership of 60,000, and received over a million votes in Spanish [[syndical]] elections. Other active syndicalist movements include the US [[Workers Solidarity Alliance]], and the UK [[Solidarity Federation]]. The revolutionary industrial unionist [[Industrial Workers of the World]] also exists, claiming 2,000 paid members. Contemporary critics of anarcho-syndicalism and revolutionary industrial unionism claim that they are [[workerist]] and fail to deal with economic life outside work. Post-leftist critics such as [[Bob Black]] claim anarcho-syndicalism advocates oppressive social structures, such as [[work]] and the [[workplace]]. Anarcho-syndicalists in general uphold principles of workers solidarity, [[direct action]], and self-management. ===The Russian Revolution=== {{main|Russian Revolution of 1917}} The [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] was a seismic event in the development of anarchism as a movement and as a philosophy. Anarchists participated alongside the [[Bolsheviks]] in both February and October revolutions, many anarchists initially supporting the Bolshevik coup. However the Bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left-wing opposition, a conflict which culminated in the 1918 [[Kronstadt rebellion]]. Anarchists in central Russia were imprisoned or driven underground, or joined the victorious Bolsheviks. In [[Ukraine]] anarchists fought in the [[Russian Civil War|civil war]] against both Whites and Bolsheviks within the Makhnovshchina peasant army led by [[Nestor Makhno]]). Expelled American anarchists [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Alexander Berkman]] before leaving Russia were amongst those agitating in response to Bolshevik policy and the suppression of the Kronstadt uprising. Both wrote classic accounts of their experiences in Russia, aiming to expose the reality of Bolshevik control. For them, [[Bakunin]]'s predictions about the consequences of Marxist rule had proved all too true. The victory of the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution and the resulting Russian Civil War did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally. Many workers and activists saw Bolshevik success as setting an example; Communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements. In France and the US for example, the major syndicalist movements of the [[CGT]] and [[IWW]] began to realign themselves away from anarchism and towards the [[Comintern|Communist International]]. In Paris, the [[Dielo Truda]] group of Russian anarchist exiles which included [[Nestor Makhno]] concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of Bolshevism. Their 1926 manifesto, known as the [[Platformism|Organisational Platform of the Libertarian Communists]], was supported by some communist anarchists, though opposed by many others. The ''Platform'' continues to inspire some contemporary anarchist groups who believe in an anarchist movement organised around its principles of 'theoretical unity', 'tactical unity', 'collective responsibility' and 'federalism'. Platformist groups today include the [[Workers Solidarity Movement]] in Ireland, the UK's [[Anarchist Federation]], and the late [[North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists]] in the northeastern United States and bordering Canada. ===The fight against fascism=== {{main|Anti-fascism|Anarchism in Spain}} In the 1920s and 1930s the familiar dynamics of anarchism's conflict with the state were transformed by the rise of [[fascism]] in Europe. In many cases, European anarchists faced difficult choices - should they join in [[popular front]]s with reformist democrats and Soviet-led [[Communists]] against a common fascist enemy? Luigi Fabbri, an exile from Italian fascism, was amongst those arguing that fascism was something different: :Fascism is not just another form of government which, like all others, uses violence. It is the most authoritarian and the most violent form of government imaginable. It represents the utmost glorification of the theory and practice of the principle of authority. {{fact}} In France, where the fascists came close to insurrection in the February 1934 riots, anarchists divided over a 'united front' policy. {{ref|univmontp3}} In Spain, the [[CNT]] initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance, and abstention by CNT supporters led to a right wing election victory. But in 1936, the CNT changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power. Months later, the ruling class responded with an attempted coup, and the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936-39) was underway. In reponse to the army rebellion [[Anarchism in Spain|an anarchist-inspired]] movement of peasants and workers, supported by armed militias, took control of the major [[city]] of [[Barcelona]] and of large areas of rural Spain where they [[collectivization|collectivized]] the land. But even before the eventual fascist victory in [[1939]], the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the [[Stalinists]]. The CNT leadership often appeared confused and divided, with some members controversially entering the government. Stalinist-led troops suppressed the collectives, and persecuted both [[POUM|dissident marxists]] and anarchists. Since the late 1970s anarchists have been involved in fighting the rise of [[neo-fascism|neo-fascist]] groups. In Germany and the United Kingdom some anarchists worked within [[militant]] [[anti-fascism|anti-fascist]] groups alongside members of the [[Marxist]] left. They advocated directly combating fascists with physical force rather than relying on the state. Since the late 1990s, a similar tendency has developed within US anarchism. ''See also: [[Anti-Racist Action]] (US), [[Anti-Fascist Action]] (UK), [[Antifa]]'' ===Religious Anarchisms=== {{main|Christian anarchism|Anarchism and religion}} [[Image:LeoTolstoy.jpg|thumb|[[Leo Tolstoy|Leo Tolstoy]] 1828-1910]] Most anarchist culture tends to be [[secular]] if not outright [[militant athiesm|anti-religious]]. However, the combination of religious social conscience, historical religiousity amongst oppressed social classes, and the compatability of some interpretations of religious traditions with anarchism has resulted in religious anarchisms. [[Christian anarchism|Christian anarchists]] believe that there is no higher authority than [[God]], and oppose earthly authority such as [[government]] and established churches. They believe that Jesus' teachings were clearly anarchistic, but were corrupted when \"Christianity\" was declared the official religion of Rome. Christian anarchists, who follow Jesus' directive to \"turn the other cheek\", are strict [[pacifism|pacifists]]. The most famous advocate of Christian anarchism was [[Leo Tolstoy]], author of ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'', who called for a society based on compassion, nonviolent principles and freedom. Christian anarchists tend to form [[experimental communities]]. They also occasionally [[tax resistance|resist taxation]]. Many Christian anarchists are [[vegetarianism|vegetarian]] or [[veganism|vegan]]{{fact}}. [[Chinese Anarchism]] was most influential in the 1920s. Strands of Chinese anarchism included [[Tai-Xu]]'s [[Buddhist Anarchism]] which was influenced by Tolstoy and the [[well-field system]]. [[Neopaganism]], with its focus on the environment and equality, along with its often decentralized nature, has lead to a number of neopagan anarchists. One of the most prominent is [[Starhawk]], who writes extensively about both [[spirituality]] and [[activism]]. ===Anarchism and feminism=== {{main|Anarcha-Feminism}} [[Image:Goldman-4.jpg|thumb|left|[[Emma Goldman]]]] Anarcha-feminism is a kind of [[radical feminism]] that espouses the belief that [[patriarchy]] is a funda!mental problem in society. While anarchist feminism has existed for more than a hundred years, its explicit formulation as ''anarcha-feminism'' dates back to the early 70s {{ref|anarcha}}, during the [[second-wave feminism|second-wave]] feminist movement. Anarcha-feminism, views [[patriarchy]] as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history; thus, the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female. Anarcha-feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy, they must also be against all forms of [[hierarchy]], and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism. {{fact}} Anarcho-primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the start of [[civilization]], and therefore consider primitivism to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns. [[Eco-feminism]] is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought. Anarcha-feminism is most often associated "with early 20th-century authors and theorists such as [[Emma Goldman]] and [[Voltairine de Cleyre]], although even early first-wave feminist [[Mary Wollstonecraft]] held proto-anarchist views, and William Godwin is often considered a feminist anarchist precursor. It should be noted that Goldman and de Cleyre, though they both opposed the state, had opposing philosophies, as de Cleyre explains: \"Miss Goldman is a communist; I am an individualist. She wishes to destroy the right of property, I wish to assert it. I make my war upon privilege and authority, whereby the right of property, the true right in that which is proper to the individual, is annihilated. She believes that co-operation would entirely supplant competition; I hold that competition in one form or another will always exist, and that it is highly desirable it should.\" In the [[Spanish Civil War]], an anarcha-feminist group, \"Free Women\", organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas. In the modern day anarchist movement, many an#archists, male or female, consider themselves feminists, and anarcha-feminist ideas are growing. The publishing of Quiet Rumors, an anarcha-feminist reader, has helped to spread various kinds of anti-authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement. Wendy McElroy has popularized an anarcho-capitalist take on feminism in her books, articles, and individualist feminist website {{ref|ifeminists}}. ===Anarcho-capitalism=== [[Image:Murray Rothbard Smile.JPG|thumb|left| [[Murray Rothbard]] (1926-1995)]] {{main|Anarcho capitalism}} Anarcho-capitalism is a predominantly United States based theoretical tradition that desires a stateless society with the economic system of [[free market]] [[capitalism]]. Anarcho-capitalists believe all [[voluntary]] [[transactions]] between [[consenting adults]] should be legal. They do not oppose employment or interest. Unlike 19th century American individualism, anarcho-capitalism does not generally hold with the [[labour theory of value]], but rather holds$ the [[Subjective Theory of Value|subjectivist theory of value]]. As such they do not oppose [[profit]]. Anarcho-capitalists oppose [[state capitalism]]. [[Murray Rothbard]]'s synthesis of [[classical liberalism]] and [[Austrian economics]] was germinal for the development of contemporary anarcho-capitalist theory. Rothbard defines anarchism in terms of the [[non-aggression principle]]. For Rothbard, \"an anarchist society [is] one where there is no legal possibility for coercive aggression against the person or property of any individual.\" {{ref|Rothbard-SWAS-1975}} Anarcho-capitalists favor complete laissez-faire capitalism as opposed to state capitalism; Rothbard says the \"difference between free-market capitalism and state capitalism is precisely the difference between, on the one hand, peaceful, voluntary exchange, and on the other, violent expropriation.\" {{ref|Rothbard-Future}} Though the term anarcho-capitalism was coined by Rothbard, similar philosophies existed prior to Rothbard that note%d anarcho-capitalists, along with some historians such as David Hart and [[Ralph Raico]], consider to be anarcho-capitalist. These include the philosophies of 18th and 19th theorists such as [[Gustave de Molinari]], [[Julius Faucher]], [[Jakob Mauvillon]], and [[Auberon Herbert]] {{ref|Rothbard-Molinari}} {{ref|Hart-Molinari}} {{ref|Raico}} {{ref|Hoppe}} Rothbard's conception is based on the concept of [[Natural Law]]. Competiting theorists use egoism, [[utilitarianism]] ([[David Friedman]]), or [[contractarianism]] ([[Jan Narveson]]). Important anarcho-capitalists include [[Hans-Hermann Hoppe]], [[Lew Rockwell]], and [[Bryan Caplan]]. Some [[minarchism|minarchists]], such as [[Ayn Rand]], [[Robert Nozick]], and [[Robert A. Heinlein]], have influenced anarcho-capitalism. Most anarchists, societarians and individualists, deny that anarcho-capitalism is a form of anarchism, arguing that capitalism runs contrary to an egalitarian power structure and is an inherently authoritarian institution.{{fact}} The latter criticism is contested by anarcho-capitalists, and by some [[American individualist anarchism|American individualist anarchists]].{{fact}} Anarcho-capitalism is also criticized by anarchists that compare it with [[feudalism]].{{fact}} In ''Noam Chomsky on Anarchism'', Chomsky writes, \"Anarcho-capitalism, in my opinion, is a doctrinal system which, if ever implemented, would lead to forms of tyranny and oppression that have few counterparts in human history\", although he adds that he finds himself, \"in substantial agreement with people who consider themselves anarcho-capitalists on a whole range of issues\". {{ref|totse}} ===Anarchism and the environment=== {{seealso|Anarcho-primitivism|Green ana'rchism|Eco-anarchism|Ecofeminism}} Since the late 1970s anarchists in Anglophone and European countries have been taking action for the natural environment. [[Eco-anarchism]] or [[Green anarchism]] believe in [[deep ecology]]. This is a worldview that embraces [[biodiversity]] and [[sustainability]]. Eco-anarchists often use [[direct action]] against what they see as earth-destroying institutions. Of particular importance is the [[Earth First!]] movement, that takes action such as [[tree sitting]]. Another important component is [[ecofeminism]], which sees the domination of nature as a metaphor for the domination of women. Green anarchism also involves a critique of industrial capitalism, and, for some green anarchists, civilization itself.{{fact}} Primitivism is a predominantly Western philosophy that advocates a return to a pre-industrial and usually pre-agricultural society. It develops a critique of industrial civilization. In this critique [[technology]] and [[development]] have [[alienation|ali(enated]] people from the natural world. This philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the [[Luddites]] and the writings of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]]. Primitivism developed in the context of the [[Reclaim the Streets]], Earth First! and the [[Earth Liberation Front]] movements. [[John Zerzan]] wrote that [[civilization]] — not just the state — would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved.{{fact}} Anarcho-primitivists point to the anti-authoritarian nature of many 'primitive' or hunter-gatherer societies throughout the world's history, as examples of anarchist societies. ===Other branches and offshoots=== Anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements. Since the Western social formet in the 1960s and 1970s a number new of movements and schools have appeared. Most of these stances are limited to even smaller numbers than the schools and movements listed above. [[Image:Hakim Bey.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Hakim Bey]]]] *'''Post-left anarchy''' - Post-)left anarchy (also called egoist-anarchism) seeks to distance itself from the traditional \"left\" - communists, liberals, social democrats, etc. - and to escape the confines of [[ideology]] in general. Post-leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long attachment to contrary \"leftist\" movements and single issue causes ([[anti-war]], [[anti-nuclear]], etc.). It calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti-authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu. It often focuses on the individual rather than speaking in terms of class or other broad generalizations and shuns organizational tendencies in favor of the complete absence of explicit hierarchy. Important groups and individuals associated with Post-left anarchy include: [[CrimethInc]], the magazine [[Anarchy: A Journal of Desire Armed]] and its editor [[Jason McQuinn]], [[Bob Black]], [[Hakim Bey]] and others. For more information, see [[Infoshop.org]]'s ''Anarchy After Leftism'' {{ref|infoshopaal*}} section, and the [http://anarchism.ws/postleft.html Post-left section] on [http://anarchism.ws/ anarchism.ws.] ''See also:'' [[Post-left anarchy]] *'''Post-structuralism''' - The term postanarchism was originated by [[Saul Newman]], first receiving popular attention in his book ''[[From Bakunin to Lacan]]'' to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and [[poststructuralist]] thought. Subsequent to Newman's use of the term, however, it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including [[autonomism]], [[post-left anarchy]], [[situationism]], [[post-colonialism]] and Zapatismo. By its very nature post-anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs. As such it is difficult, if not impossible, to state with any degree of certainty who should or shouldn't be grouped under the rubric. Nonetheless key thinkers associated with post-anarchism include [[Saul Newman]], [[Todd May]], [[Gilles Deleuze]] and [[Félix Guattar+i]]. ''External reference: Postanarchism Clearinghouse'' {{ref|pach}} ''See also'' [[Post-anarchism]] *'''Insurrectionary anarchism''' - Insurrectionary anarchism is a form of revolutionary anarchism critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations. Insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization, including small affinity groups, carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles, and mass organizations called base structures, which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists. Proponents include [[Wolfi Landstreicher]] and [[Alfredo M. Bonanno]], author of works including \"Armed Joy\" and \"The Anarchist Tension\". This tendency is represented in the US in magazines such as [[Willful Disobedience]] and [[Killing King Abacus]]. ''See also:'' [[Insurrectionary anarchism]] *'''Small 'a' anarchism''' - '''Small 'a' anarchism''' is a term used in two different, but not unconnected contexts. Dave Neal posited the term in opposition to big 'A' Anarchism in the article [http:/,/www.spunk.org/library/intro/practice/sp001689.html Anarchism: Ideology or Methodology?]. While big 'A' Anarchism referred to ideological Anarchists, small 'a' anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts; those who viewed anarchism as \"a way of acting, or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority.\" As an anti-ideological position, small 'a' anarchism shares some similarities with [[post-left anarchy]]. [[David Graeber]] and [[Andrej Grubacic]] offer an alternative use of the term, applying it to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation, voluntary association, mutual aid, the network model, and crucially, \"the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means, let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one's vision at the point of a gun.\" {{ref|zmag}} ==Other issues== *'''Conceptions of an anarchist society''' - Many political philosophe-rs justify support of the state as a means of regulating violence, so that the destruction caused by human conflict is minimized and fair relationships are established. Anarchists argue that pursuit of these ends does not justify the establishment of a state; many argue that the state is incompatible with those goals and the ''cause'' of chaos, violence, and war. Anarchists argue that the state helps to create a [[Monopoly on the legitimate use of physical force|monopoly on violence]], and uses violence to advance elite interests. Much effort has been dedicated to explaining how anarchist societies would handle criminality.''See also:'' [[Anarchism and Society]] *'''Civil rights and cultural sovereignty''' - [[Black anarchism]] opposes the existence of a state, capitalism, and subjugation and domination of people of color, and favors a non-hierarchical organization of society. Theorists include [[Ashanti Alston]], [[Lorenzo Komboa Ervin]], and [[Sam Mbah]]. [[Anarchist People of Color]] was created as a. forum for non-caucasian anarchists to express their thoughts about racial issues within the anarchist movement, particularly within the United States. [[National anarchism]] is a political view which seeks to unite cultural or ethnic preservation with anarchist views. Its adherents propose that those preventing ethnic groups (or [[races]]) from living in separate autonomous groupings should be resisted. [[Anti-Racist Action]] is not an anarchist group, but many anarchists are involved. It focuses on publicly confronting racist agitators. The [[Zapatista]] movement of Chiapas, Mexico is a cultural sovereignty group with some anarchist proclivities. *'''Neo-imperialism and Globalization''' - To anarchists, [[neo-imperialism]] amounts to inter-state loan-sharking. All anarchists oppose neo-imperialism and the state cartels which carry it out, such as the [[World Bank]], [[World Trade Organization]], [[G8|Group of Eight]], and the [[World Economic Forum]]. [[Globalization]] is an ambiguous term that has d/ifferent meanings to different anarchist factions. Most anarchists use the term to mean neo-imperialism, with many active in the [[anti-globalization]] movement. Others, particularly anarcho-capitalists, use \"globalization\" to mean the worldwide expansion of the division of labor and trade, which they see as beneficial so long as governments do not intervene. *'''Parallel structures''' - Many anarchists try to set up alternatives to state-supported institutions and \"outposts,\" such as [[Food Not Bombs]], [[infoshop]], educational systems such as home-schooling, neighborhood mediation/arbitration groups, and so on. The idea is to creating the structures for a new anti-authoritarian society in the shell of the old, authoritarian one. *'''Technology''' - Recent technological developments have made the anarchist cause both easier to advance and more conceivable to people. Many people use the Internet to form on-line communities. [[Intellectual property]] is undermined and a gift-culture supported by [0[file sharing|sharing music files]], [[open source]] programming, and the [[free software movement]]. These cyber-communities include the [[GNU]], [[Linux]], [[Indymedia]], and [[Wiki]]. [[Public key cryptography]] has made anonymous digital currencies such as [[e-gold]] and [[Local Exchange Trading Systems]] an alternative to statist [[fiat money]]. Some anarchists see [[information technology]] as the best weapon to defeat authoritarianism. Some even think the information age makes eventual anarchy inevitable. {{ref|modulaware}} ''See also'': [[Crypto-anarchism]] and [[Cypherpunk]]. *'''Pacifism''' - Some anarchists consider [[Pacifism]] (opposition to [[war]]) to be inherent in their philosophy. [[Anarcho-pacifism|anarcho-pacifists]] take it further and follow [[Leo Tolstoy]]'s belief in [[Nonviolence|non-violence]]. Anarchists see war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power, both domestically and in foreign lands, and subscribe to [[Randolph Bourne]]'s view that \"war i1s the health of the state\" {{ref|struggle}}. A lot of anarchist activity has been [[anti-war]] based. *'''Parliamentarianism''' - In general terms, the anarchist ethos opposes voting in elections, because voting amounts to condoning the state. {{ref|vlntryst}}. [[Voluntaryism]] is an anarchist school of thought which emphasizes \"tending your own garden\" and \"neither ballots nor bullets.\" The anarchist case against voting is explained in ''The Ethics of Voting'' {{ref|voluntaryism}} by [[George H. Smith]]. (Also see \"Voting Anarchists: An Oxymoron or What?\" by [[Joe Peacott]], and writings by [[Fred Woodworth]]). *'''Sectarianism''' - Most anarchist schools of thought are, to some degree, [[sectarian]]. There is often a difference of opinion ''within'' each school about how to react to, or interact with, other schools. Some, such as [[panarchy|panarchists]], believe that it is possible for a variety of modes of social life to coexist and compete. Some anarchists view opposing schools as a social2 impossibility and resist interaction; others see opportunities for coalition-building, or at least temporary alliances for specific purposes. ''See [[anarchism without adjectives]].'' ==Criticisms of anarchism== '''Violence.''' The very word ''anarchism'' originated as a term of abuse first used during against the working class [[sans-culotte|''sans-culottes'']] during the [[French Revolution]]. Since then, anarchism has often been associated by with violence and destruction. '''Utopianism.''' Anarchism is often criticised as unfeasible, or plain [[utopian]], even by many who agree that it's a nice idea in principle. '''[[Social class|Class]] character.''' [[Marxists]] have characterised anarchism as an expression of the class interests of the [[petite bourgeoisie]] or perhaps the [[lumpenproletariat]]. See e.g. Plekhanov {{ref|plekhanov}} for a swingeing Marxist critique of 1895. Anarchists have also been characterised as spoilt [[middle-class]] [[dilettante]]s, most recently in relation to [[anti-c3apitalism|anti-capitalist]] protesters. '''Tacit authoritarianism.''' In recent decades anarchism has been criticised by 'situationists', 'post-anarchists' and others of preserving 'tacitly statist', authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies behind a dogmatic facade.{{fact}} '''Hypocrisy.''' Some critics point to the [[sexist]] and [[racist]] views of some prominent anarchists, notably [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon|Proudhon]] and [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]], as examples of [[hypocrisy]] inherent within anarchism. Most anarchists, however, dismiss that the personal prejudices of 19th century theorists influence the beliefs of present-day anarchists. ==Cultural phenomena== [[Image:Noam_chomsky.jpg|thumb|150px|right| [[Noam Chomsky]] (1928–)]] The kind of anarchism that is most easily encountered in popular culture is represented by celebrities who publicly identify themselves as anarchists. Although some anarchists reject any focus on such famous living individuals as inherently élitist, the following fig4ures are examples of prominent publicly self-avowed anarchists: * the [[MIT]] professor of [[Linguistics]] [[Noam Chomsky]] * the [[science fiction]] author [[Ursula K. Le Guin]] * the social historian [[Howard Zinn]] * entertainer and author [[Hans Alfredsson]] * the [[Avant-garde]] artist [[Nicolás Rosselló]] In [[Denmark]], the [[Freetown Christiania]] was created in downtown [[Copenhagen]]. The housing and employment crisis in most of [[Western Europe]] led to the formation of [[commune (intentional community)|communes]] and squatter movements like the one still thriving in [[Barcelona]], in [[Catalonia]]. Militant [[antifa|resistance to neo-Nazi groups]] in places like Germany, and the uprisings of [[autonomous Marxism]], [[situationist]], and [[Autonomist]] groups in France and Italy also helped to give popularity to anti-authoritarian, non-capitalist ideas. In various musical styles, anarchism rose in popularity. Most famous for the linking of anarchist ideas and music has been punk rock5, although in the modern age, hip hop, and folk music are also becoming important mediums for the spreading of the anarchist message. In the [[United Kingdom|UK]] this was associated with the [[punk rock]] movement; the band [[Crass]] is celebrated for its anarchist and [[pacifism|pacifist]] ideas. The [[Dutch people|Dutch]] punk band [[The Ex]] further exemplifies this expression. ''For further details, see [[anarcho-punk]]'' ==See also== There are many concepts relevant to the topic of anarchism, this is a brief summary. There is also a more extensive [[list of anarchist concepts]]. * [[Anarchist symbolism]] * [[Anarchism/Links|List of anarchism links]] * [[List of anarchists]] * [[List of anarchist organizations]] * [[Past and present anarchist communities]] ===Historical events=== *[[Paris Commune]] ([[1871]]) *[[Haymarket Riot]] ([[1886]]) *[[The Makhnovsc6hina]] ([[1917]] — [[1921]]) *[[Kronstadt rebellion]] ([[1921]]) *[[Spanish Revolution]] ([[1936]]) (see [[Anarchism in Spain]] and [[Spanish Revolution]]) *[[May 1968]], France ([[1968]]) *[[WTO Ministerial Conference of 1999|WTO Meeting in Seattle]] ([[1999]]) ===Books=== {{main|List of anarchist books}} The following is a sample of books that have been referenced in this page, a more complete list can be found at the [[list of anarchist books]]. *[[Mikhail Bakunin]], ''[[God and the State]]'' [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bakunin/godandstate/godandstate_ch1.html] *[[Emma Goldman]], ''[[Anarchism & Other Essays]]'' [http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/goldman/GoldmanCW.html] *[[Peter Kropotkin]], ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution|Mutual Aid]]'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/4341] *[[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]], ''[[What is Property?]]'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/360] *[[Murray Rothbard]] ''[http://www.mises.org/rothbard/ethics/ethics.asp The Ethics of Liberty7]'' *[[Max Stirner]], ''[[The Ego And Its Own]]'' [http://www.df.lth.se/~triad/stirner/] *[[Leo Tolstoy]], ''[[The Kingdom of God is Within You]]'' [http://www.kingdomnow.org/withinyou.html] ===Anarchism by region/culture=== * [[African Anarchism]] * [[Anarchism in Spain]] * [[Anarchism in the English tradition]] * [[Chinese anarchism]] ==References== # {{note|Kropotkin_MutualAid}} Peter Kropotkin. ''[[Mutual Aid: A Factor in Evolution]].'' 1902. # {{note|Engels_OriginsoftheFamily}} Friedrich Engels. ''[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1884/origin-family/index.htm Origins of the Family, Private Property, and the State.]'' 1884. # {{note|toxicpop}} The Anarchy Organization (Toronto). ''Taoism and Anarchy.'' April 14, 2002 [http://www.toxicpop.co.uk/library/taoism.htm Toxicpop mirror as of 23 January 2006] [http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/5705/taoan.html Vanity site mirror as of 23 January 2006] # {{note|lewrockwell}} Murray Rothbard. \"The Ancient Chinese Libertarian Tradition\" extract from \"Concepts of the Role of Intellectuals in Social Change Toward Laissez Faire\" ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies'' 9 (2) Fall 1990. [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/ancient-chinese.html extract web published at lewrockwell.com] [http://www.mises.org/journals/jls/9_2/9_2_3.pdf Full original web publishe9d as PDF at mises.org] # {{note|blackcrayon}} [http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/britt1910.html Anarchism - from The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1910. Written by Peter Kropotkin ] # {{note|Russell_WesternPhilosophy}} Bertrand Russell. \"Ancient philosophy\" in ''A History of Western Philosophy, and its connection with political and social circumstances from the earliest times to the present day.'' 1945. # {{note|Brit94}} [http://www.zpub.com/notes/aan-hist.html An Anarchist Timeline] - from Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1994 # {{note|virginiaedu}} [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-12 Dictionary of the History of Ideas - ANARCHISM] # {{note|libertyfund}} [http://oll.libertyfund.org/Texts/LFBooks/Burke0061/Vindication/0339_Bk.html] # {{note|enqjustice}} [http://web.bilkent.edu.tr/Online/www.english.upenn.edu/jlynch/Frank/Godwin/pjtp.html] # {{note|encarta}} [http://uk.encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761568770/Anarchism.html MSN Encarta - Anarchism] # {{note|litencyc}} [http://ww:w.litencyc.com/php/adpage.php?id=1969 Bakunin: Statism and Anarchy by Michael Bakunin] # {{note|bakunin-f}} [http://nefac.net/node/157] # {{note|dejacque1}} [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/Encyclopedia/DejacqueJoseph.htm] # {{note|dejacque2}} [http://joseph.dejacque.free.fr/ecrits/lettreapjp.htm De l'être-humain mâle et femelle - Lettre à P.J. Proudhon par Joseph Déjacque] (in [[French language|French]]) # {{note|Tucker-LAIP}} Tucker, Benjamin [http://www.blackcrayon.com/page.jsp/library/tucker/tucker37.htm ''Labor and Its Pay''] Individual Liberty: Selections From the Writings of Benjamin R. Tucker, Vanguard Press, New York, 1926, Kraus Reprint Co., Millwood, NY, 1973. # {{note|Tucker-Kropotkin}} [http://www.zetetics.com/mac/libdebates/apx1pubs.html] # {{note|univmontp3}} [http://melior.univ-montp3.fr/ra_forum/en/people/berry_david/fascism_or_revolution.html] # {{note|anarcha}} [http://www.anarcha.org/sallydarity/Anarcho-FeminismTwoStatements.htm Anarcho-Feminism - Two Statements - Who we are: A;n Anarcho-Feminist Manifesto] # {{note|ifeminists}} [http://www.ifeminists.net I-feminists.net] # {{note|Rothbard-SWAS-1975}} [http://praxeology.net/MR-GM-PS.htm Preface to ''The Production of Security''] by Gustave de Molinari, translated by J. Huston McCulloch, Occasional Papers Series #2 (Richard M. Ebeling, Editor), New York: The Center for Libertarian Studies, May 1977. # {{note|Rothbard-Future}} Rothbard, Murray N. [http://www.mises.org/fullstory.aspx?control=1559&id=77 ''The Future of Peace and Capitalism''] Modern Political Economy, James H. Weaver, ed. pp. 419-430, Chapter 28, (Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1973) # {{note|Rothbard-Molinari}} [http://praxeology.net/MR-GM-PS.htm Preface to ''The Production of Security''] by Gustave de Molinari, translated by J. Huston McCulloch, Occasional Papers Series #2 (Richard M. Ebeling, Editor), New York: The Center for Libertarian Studies, May 1977 # {{note|Hart-Molinari}} Hart, David [http://homepage.mac.com/dmhart/Molinari/ Gustave de Molinari and the Anti-Starwhelming diversity and number of links relating to anarchism is extensively covered on the [[List of anarchism web resources|links subpage]]. *[http://anarchoblogs.protest.net/ Anarchoblogs] Blogs by Anarchists. *[http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/ Anarchy Archives] extensively archives information relating to famous anarchists. This includes many of their books and other publications. *Hundreds of anarchists are listed, with short bios, links & dedicated pages [http://recollectionbooks.com/bleed/gallery/galleryindex.htm at the Daily Bleed's Anarchist Encyclopedia] *[http://www.infoshop.org/ Infoshop Online Anarchist Datebase] *[http://www.iww.org/ Industrial Workers of the World] [[Category:Anarchism|*]] [[Category:Forms of government]] [[Category:Political theories]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Political ideology entry points]] [[ar:لاسلطوية]] [[ast:Anarquismu]] [[bg:Анархизъм]] [[zh-min-nan:Hui-thóng-tī-chú-gī]] [[bs:Anarhizam]] [[ca:Anarquisme]] [[cs:Anarchismus]] [[da:Anarkisme]] [[de:Anarchismus]] [[et:Anarhism]] [[es:Anarquismo]] [[eo:Anarkiismo]] [[eu:Anarkismo]] [[fa:دولت‌زدائی]] [[fr:Anarchisme]] [[gl:Anarquismo]] [[ko:아나키즘]] [[id:Anarkisme]] [[is:Stjórnleysisstefna]] [[it:Anarchismo]] [[he:אנרכיזם]] [[lt:Anarchizmas]] [[hu:Anarchizmus]] [[nl:Anarchisme]] [[ja:アナキズム]] [[no:Anarkisme]] [[nn:Anarkisme]] [[pl:Anarchizm]] [[pt:Anarquismo]] [[ro:Anarhism]] [[ru:Анархизм]] [[simple:Anarchism]] [[sk:Anarchizmus]] [[sl:Anarhizem]] [[sr:Анархизам]] [[fi:Anarkismi]] [[sv:Anarkism]] [[th:ลัทธิอนาธิปไตย]] [[tr:Anarşizm]] [[zh:无政府主义]]utf-8 "oF%Z"6 cC#REDIRECT [[Communications in Afghanistan]]utf-8/ UC#REDIRECT [[Economy of Afghanistan]]utf-84 _C#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Afghanistan]]utf-81 YC#REDIRECT [[Geography of Afghanistan]]utf-8/UC#REDIRECT [[History of Afghanistan]]utf-8K C{{npov}} {{original_research}} {{unreferenced}} {{Anarchism}} '''Anarchism''' derives from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ''[[Wiktionary:αναρχία|αναρχία]]'' (\"without [[archon]]s (ruler, chief, king)\"). Thus anarchism, in its most general meaning, is the belief that rulers are unnecessary and should be abolished. '''Anarchism''' refers to various [[political1YC#REDIRECT [[Ada programming language]]utf-8-QC#REDIRECT [[Accessible_computing]]utf-8'EC#REDIRECT [[Applied ethics]]utf-8;mC#REDIRECT [[American Samoa]]{{R from CamelCase}}utf-84_C#REDIRECT [[Algeria]]{{R from CamelCase}}utf-8/C#REDIRECT [[AAA]]utf-8 [8 wJl? 7C#REDIRECT [[Alchemy]]utf-8+MC#REDIRECT [[Economy of Albania]]utf-8,OC#REDIRECT [[Politics of Albania]]utf-8#=C#REDIRECT [[All Saints]]utf-8(GC#REDIRECT [[As_We_May_Think]]utf-80WC#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Albania]]utf-8-QC#REDIRECT [[Geography of Albania]]utf-8+MC#REDIRECT [[History of Albania]]utf-8:gC{{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Childhood autism | ICD10 = F84.0 | ICD9 = 299.0 | }} '''Autism''' is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests itself in markedly abnormal social interaction, communication ability, patterns of interests, and patterns of behavior. Although the specific [[etiology]] of autism is unknown, many researchers suspect that autism results from genetically mediated vulnerabilities to environmental triggers. And while there is disagreement about the magnitude, nature, and mechanisms for such environmental factors, researchers have found at least seven major genes prevalent among individuals diagnosed as autistic. Some estimate that autism occurs in as many as one [[United States]] child Cin 166, however the [[National Institute of Mental Health]] gives a more conservative estimate of one in 1000 [http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubs/autism_overview_2005.pdf]. For families that already have one autistic child, the odds of a second autistic child may be as high as one in twenty. Diagnosis is based on a list of [[Psychiatry|psychiatric]] criteria, and a series of standardized clinical tests may also be used. Autism may not be [[Physiology|physiologically]] obvious. A complete physical and [[neurological]] evaluation will typically be part of diagnosing autism. Some now speculate that autism is not a single condition but a group of several distinct conditions that manifest in similar ways. By definition, autism must manifest delays in \"social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play,\" with \"onset prior to age 3 years\", according to the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]. The [[ICD-10]] also says that symptoms muDst \"manifest before the age of three years.\" There have been large increases in the reported [[Autism epidemic|incidence of autism]], for reasons that are heavily debated by [[research]]ers in [[psychology]] and related fields within the [[scientific community]]. There are cases of children with autism who have improved their social and other skills to the point where they can fully participate in mainstream education and social events, but there are lingering concerns that an absolute cure from autism is impossible with current technology. However, many autistic children and adults who are able to communicate (at least in writing) are opposed to attempts to cure their conditions, and see such conditions as part of who they are. ==History== [[image:Asperger_kl2.jpg|frame|right|Dr. [[Hans Asperger]] described a form of autism in the 1940s that later became known as [[Asperger's syndrome]].]] The word ''autism'' was first used in the [[English language]] by Swiss psychiatrist [[Eugene Bleuler]] in a 19E12 number of the ''American Journal of Insanity''. It comes from the Greek word for \"self\". However, the [[Medical classification|classification]] of autism did not occur until the middle of the [[twentieth century]], when in 1943 psychiatrist Dr. [[Leo Kanner]] of the [[Johns Hopkins Hospital]] in Baltimore reported on 11 child patients with striking behavioral similarities, and introduced the label ''early infantile autism''. He suggested \"autism\" from the [[Greek language|Greek]] αυτος (''autos''), meaning \"self\", to describe the fact that the children seemed to lack interest in other people. Although Kanner's first paper on the subject was published in a (now defunct) journal, ''The Nervous Child'', almost every characteristic he originally described is still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders. At the same time an [[Austria|Austrian]] scientist, Dr. [[Hans Asperger]], described a different form of autism that became known as [[Asperger'sF syndrome]]—but the widespread recognition of Asperger's work was delayed by [[World War II]] in [[Germany]], and by the fact that his seminal paper wasn't translated into English for almost 50 years. The majority of his work wasn't widely read until 1997. Thus these two conditions were described and are today listed in the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] DSM-IV-TR (fourth edition, text revision 1) as two of the five [[Pervasive developmental disorder|pervasive developmental disorders]] (PDD), more often referred to today as [[Autistic spectrum|autism spectrum disorders]] (ASD). All of these conditions are characterized by varying degrees of difference in [[communication skill]]s, social interactions, and restricted, repetitive and stereotyped patterns of [[Human behavior|behavior]]. Few clinicians today solely use the DSM-IV criteria for determining a diagnosis of autism, which are based on the absence or delay of certain developmental milestones. Many clinicians insteadG use an alternate means (or a combination thereof) to more accurately determine a [[diagnosis]]. ==Terminology== {{wiktionarypar2|autism|autistic}} When referring to someone diagnosed with autism, the term ''autistic'' is often used. However, the term ''person with autism'' can be used instead. This is referred to as ''[[person-first terminology]]''. The [[autistic community]] generally prefers the term ''autistic'' for reasons that are fairly controversial. This article uses the term ''autistic'' (see [[Talk:Autism|talk page]]). ==Characteristics== [[Image:kanner_kl2.jpg|frame|right|Dr. [[Leo Kanner]] introduced the label ''early infantile autism'' in 1943.]] There is a great diversity in the skills and behaviors of individuals diagnosed as autistic, and physicians will often arrive at different conclusions about the appropriate diagnosis. Much of this is due to the [[sensory system]] of an autistic which is quite different from the sensory system of other people, since certain [[stimulus|stimulations]H] can affect an autistic differently than a non-autistic, and the degree to which the sensory system is affected varies wildly from one autistic person to another. Nevertheless, professionals within [[pediatric]] care and development often look for early indicators of autism in order to initiate treatment as early as possible. However, some people do not believe in treatment for autism, either because they do not believe autism is a disorder or because they believe treatment can do more harm than good. ===Social development=== Typically, developing infants are social beings—early in life they do such things as gaze at people, turn toward voices, grasp a finger, and even smile. In contrast, most autistic children prefer objects to faces and seem to have tremendous difficulty learning to engage in the give-and-take of everyday human interaction. Even in the first few months of life, many seem indifferent to other people because they avoid eye contact and do not interact with them as often as non-auItistic children. Children with autism often appear to prefer being alone to the company of others and may passively accept such things as hugs and cuddling without reciprocating, or resist attention altogether. Later, they seldom seek comfort from others or respond to parents' displays of [[anger]] or [[affection]] in a typical way. Research has suggested that although autistic children are attached to their [[parent]]s, their expression of this attachment is unusual and difficult to interpret. Parents who looked forward to the joys of cuddling, [[teaching]], and playing with their child may feel crushed by this lack of expected [[attachment theory|attachment]] behavior. Children with autism appear to lack \"[[Theory_of_mind|theory of mind]]\", the ability to see things from another person's perspective, a behavior cited as exclusive to human beings above the age of five and, possibly, other higher [[primate]]s such as adult [[gorilla]]s, [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzee]]s and [[bonobos]]. Typical 5-yearJ-olds can develop insights into other people's different knowledge, feelings, and intentions, interpretations based upon social cues (e.g., gestures, facial expressions). An individual with autism seems to lack these interpretation skills, an inability that leaves them unable to predict or understand other people's actions. The social [[alienation]] of autistic and Asperger's people is so intense from childhood that many of them have [[imaginary friend]]s as companionship. However, having an imaginary friend is not necessarily a sign of autism and also occurs in non-autistic children. Although not universal, it is common for autistic people to not regulate their behavior. This can take the form of crying or verbal outbursts that may seem out of proportion to the situation. Individuals with autism generally prefer consistent routines and environments; they may react negatively to changes in them. It is not uncommon for individuals to exhibit aggression, increased levels of self-stimulatory behavior, selfK-injury or extensive withdrawal in overwhelming situations. ===Sensory system=== A key indicator to clinicians making a proper assessment for autism would include looking for symptoms much like those found in [[Sensory Integration Dysfunction|sensory integration dysfunction]]. Children will exhibit problems coping with the normal sensory input. Indicators of this disorder include oversensitivity or underreactivity to touch, movement, sights, or sounds; physical clumsiness or carelessness; poor body awareness; a tendency to be easily distracted; impulsive physical or verbal behaviour; an activity level that is unusually high or low; not unwinding or calming oneself; difficulty learning new movements; difficulty in making transitions from one situation to another; social and/or emotional problems; delays in [[Speech delay|speech]], [[Language delay|language]] or [[motor skills]]; specific learning difficulties/delays in academic achievement. One common example is an individual with autism [[hearing]]. A pLerson with Autism may have trouble hearing certain people while other people are louder than usual. Or the person with Autism may be unable to filter out sounds in certain situations, such as in a large crowd of people (see [[cocktail party effect]]). However, this is perhaps the part of the autism that tends to vary the most from person to person, so these examples may not apply to every autistic. It should be noted that sensory difficulties, although reportedly common in autistics, are not part of the [[DSM-IV]] diagnostic criteria for ''autistic disorder''. ===Communication difficulties=== By age 3, typical children have passed predictable language learning milestones; one of the earliest is babbling. By the first birthday, a typical toddler says words, turns when he or she hears his or her name, points when he or she wants a toy, and when offered something distasteful, makes it clear that the answer is \"no.\" Speech development in people with autism takes different paths. Some remain [[mute]] throMughout their lives while being fully [[literacy|literate]] and able to communicate in other ways—images, [[sign language]], and [[typing]] are far more natural to them. Some infants who later show signs of autism coo and babble during the first few months of life, but stop soon afterwards. Others may be delayed, developing language as late as the [[adolescence|teenage]] years. Still, inability to speak does not mean that people with autism are unintelligent or unaware. Once given appropriate accommodations, many will happily converse for hours, and can often be found in online [[chat room]]s, discussion boards or [[website]]s and even using communication devices at autism-community social events such as [[Autreat]]. Those who do speak often use [[language]] in unusual ways, retaining features of earlier stages of language development for long periods or throughout their lives. Some speak only single words, while others repeat the same phrase over and over. Some repeat what they hear, a conditionN called [[echolalia]]. Sing-song repetitions in particular are a calming, joyous activity that many autistic adults engage in. Many people with autism have a strong [[tonality|tonal]] sense, and can often understand spoken language. Some children may exhibit only slight delays in language, or even seem to have precocious language and unusually large [[vocabulary|vocabularies]], but have great difficulty in sustaining typical [[conversation]]s. The \"give and take\" of non-autistic conversation is hard for them, although they often carry on a [[monologue]] on a favorite subject, giving no one else an opportunity to comment. When given the chance to converse with other autistics, they comfortably do so in \"parallel monologue\"—taking turns expressing views and information. Just as \"neurotypicals\" (people without autism) have trouble understanding autistic [[body language]]s, vocal tones, or phraseology, people with autism similarly have trouble with such things in people without autism. In paOrticular, autistic language abilities tend to be highly literal; people without autism often inappropriately attribute hidden meaning to what people with autism say or expect the person with autism to sense such unstated meaning in their own words. The body language of people with autism can be difficult for other people to understand. Facial expressions, movements, and gestures may be easily understood by some other people with autism, but do not match those used by other people. Also, their tone of voice has a much more subtle inflection in reflecting their feelings, and the [[auditory system]] of a person without autism often cannot sense the fluctuations. What seems to non-autistic people like a high-pitched, sing-song, or flat, [[robot]]-like voice is common in autistic children. Some autistic children with relatively good language skills speak like little adults, rather than communicating at their current age level, which is one of the things that can lead to problems. Since non-autistic people arPe often unfamiliar with the autistic [[body language]], and since autistic natural language may not tend towards speech, autistic people often struggle to let other people know what they need. As anybody might do in such a situation, they may scream in frustration or resort to grabbing what they want. While waiting for non-autistic people to learn to communicate with them, people with autism do whatever they can to get through to them. Communication difficulties may contribute to autistic people becoming socially anxious or depressed. ===Repetitive behaviors=== Although people with autism usually appear physically normal and have good muscle control, unusual repetitive motions, known as self-stimulation or \"stimming,\" may set them apart. These behaviors might be extreme and highly apparent or more subtle. Some children and older individuals spend a lot of time repeatedly flapping their arms or wiggling their toes, others suddenly freeze in position. As [[child]]ren, they might spend hours lining up theQir cars and trains in a certain way, not using them for pretend play. If someone accidentally moves one of these toys, the child may be tremendously upset. Autistic children often need, and demand, absolute consistency in their environment. A slight change in any routine—in mealtimes, dressing, taking a bath, or going to school at a certain time and by the same route—can be extremely disturbing. People with autism sometimes have a persistent, intense preoccupation. For example, the child might be obsessed with learning all about [[vacuum cleaners]], [[train]] schedules or [[lighthouses]]. Often they show great interest in different languages, numbers, symbols or [[science]] topics. Repetitive behaviors can also extend into the spoken word as well. Perseveration of a single word or phrase, even for a specific number of times can also become a part of the child's daily routine. ===Effects in education=== Children with autism are affected with these symptoms every day. These unusual characterisRtics set them apart from the everyday normal student. Because they have trouble understanding people’s thoughts and feelings, they have trouble understanding what their teacher may be telling them. They do not understand that facial expressions and vocal variations hold meanings and may misinterpret what emotion their instructor is displaying. This inability to fully decipher the world around them makes education stressful. Teachers need to be aware of a student's disorder so that they are able to help the student get the best out of the lessons being taught. Some students learn better by visual aids. They are able to understand material that they see right in front of them. Because of this, many teachers create “visual schedules” for their autistic students. This allows the student to know what is going on through out the day. They know what to prepare for and what activity they will be doing next. Some autistic kids have trouble going from one activity to the next, so this visual schedule will cSause less stress on such children. Research has shown that working in partners is beneficial to autistic children. Autistic kids have problems in schools not only with language and communication, but with socialization as well. They feel self-conscious about themselves and feel that they will always be outcasts. By allowing them to work with peers they can make friends that can help them go through the problems that they deal with. By doing so they can become more integrated into the mainstream environment of the classroom. A teacher's aide can also be useful to the student. The aide is be able to give more precise directions that the teacher doesn’t have time to explain to the autistic child. The aide can also facilitate the autistic child in such a way as to allow them to stay caught up with what the rest of the class is doing. This allows a more one-on-one lesson so that the child is still able to stay in a normal classroom but be given the extra help that theyT need. There are many different techniques that teachers can use to assist their students. A teacher needs to become familiar with the child’s disorder to know what will work best with that particular child. Every child is going to be different and teachers have to be able to adjust with every one of them. Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders typically have high levels of anxiety and stress particularly in social environments like school. If a student exhibits aggressive or explosive behavior, it is important for educational teams to recognize the impact of stress and anxiety. Preparing students for new situations by writing Social Stories can lower anxiety. Teaching social and emotional concepts using systematic teaching approaches such as The Incredible 5-Point Scale or other Cognitive Behavioral strategies can increase a student's ability to control excessive behavioral reactions. == DSM definition == Autism is defined in section 299.00 of the [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental DisoUrders]] (DSM-IV) as: #A total of six (or more) items from (1), (2) and (3), with at least two from (1), and one each from (2) and (3): ##qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following: ###marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction ###failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level ###a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest) ###lack of social or emotional reciprocity ##qualitative impairments in communication as manifested by at least one of the following: ###delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language (not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime) ###in individuals with adequate speech, marked impaVirment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others ###stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language ###lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level ##restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following: ###encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus ###apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals ###stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, or complex whole-body movements) ###persistent preoccupation with parts of objects #Delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play. #The disturbanWce is not better accounted for by [[Rett syndrome|Rett's Disorder]] or [[Childhood disintegrative disorder|Childhood Disintegrative Disorder]]. The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual'''s diagnostic criteria in general is controversial for being vague and subjective. (See the [[DSM cautionary statement]].) The criteria for autism is much more controversial and some clinicians today may ignore it completely, instead solely relying on other methods for determining the diagnosis. == Types of autism == Autism presents in a wide degree, from those who are nearly [[dysfunctional]] and apparently [[Developmental Disability|mentally handicapped]] to those whose symptoms are mild or remedied enough to appear unexceptional (\"normal\") to the general public. In terms of both classification and therapy, autistic individuals are often divided into those with an [[Intelligence Quotient|IQ]]<80 referred to as having \"low-functioning autism\" (LFA), while those with IQ>80 are referred to as having \X"high-functioning autism\" (HFA). Low and high functioning are more generally applied to how well an individual can accomplish activities of daily living, rather than to [[IQ]]. The terms low and high functioning are controversial and not all autistics accept these labels. Further, these two labels are not currently used or accepted in autism literature. This discrepancy can lead to confusion among service providers who equate IQ with functioning and may refuse to serve high-IQ autistic people who are severely compromised in their ability to perform daily living tasks, or may fail to recognize the intellectual potential of many autistic people who are considered LFA. For example, some professionals refuse to recognize autistics who can speak or write as being autistic at all, because they still think of autism as a communication disorder so severe that no speech or writing is possible. As a consequence, many \"high-functioning\" autistic persons, and autistic people with a relatively high [[IQ]], are Yunderdiagnosed, thus making the claim that \"autism implies retardation\" self-fulfilling. The number of people diagnosed with LFA is not rising quite as sharply as HFA, indicating that at least part of the explanation for the apparent rise is probably better diagnostics. === Asperger's and Kanner's syndrome === [[Image:Hans Asperger.jpg|thumb|right|160px|Asperger described his patients as \"little professors\".]] In the current [[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]] (DSM-IV-TR), the most significant difference between Autistic Disorder (Kanner's) and Asperger's syndrome is that a diagnosis of the former includes the observation of \"[d]elays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play[,]\" {{ref|bnat}} while a diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome observes \"no clinically significant delay\" in these areas. {{ref|bnas}} The DSM makeZs no mention of level of intellectual functioning, but the fact that Asperger's autistics as a group tend to perform better than those with Kanner's autism has produced a popular conception that ''[[Asperger's syndrome]]'' is synonymous with \"higher-functioning autism,\" or that it is a lesser [[disorder]] than ''autism''. There is also a popular but not necessarily true conception that all autistic individuals with a high level of intellectual functioning have Asperger's autism or that both types are merely [[geek]]s with a medical label attached. Also, autism has evolved in the public understanding, but the popular identification of autism with relatively severe cases as accurately depicted in ''[[Rain Man]]'' has encouraged relatives of family members diagnosed in the autistic spectrum to speak of their loved ones as having Asperger's syndrome rather than autism. ===Autism as a spectrum disorder=== {{details|Autistic spectrum}} Another view of these disorders is that they are on a continuum known a[s [[autistic spectrum disorder]]s. A related continuum is [[Sensory Integration Dysfunction]], which is about how well we integrate the information we receive from our senses. Autism, Asperger's syndrome, and Sensory Integration Dysfunction are all closely related and overlap. There are two main manifestations of classical autism, [[regressive autism]] and [[early infantile autism]]. Early infantile autism is present at birth while regressive autism begins before the age of 3 and often around 18 months. Although this causes some controversy over when the neurological differences involved in autism truly begin, some believe that it is only a matter of when an environmental toxin triggers the disorder. This triggering could occur during gestation due to a toxin that enters the mother's body and is transfered to the fetus. The triggering could also occur after birth during the crucial early nervous system development of the child due to a toxin directly entering the child's body. ==Models== Similar to \the causes and origins of autism and [[Asperger's syndrome]], the model of what autism really is brings its own continuing conjecture and debate. Amongst several competing theories are the underconnectivity theory{{ref|cmuut}} developed by cognitive scientists at [[Carnegie Mellon University]] and the [[University of Pittsburgh]], [[Simon Baron-Cohen]]'s ''extreme male brain theory'', the lack of ''[[theory of mind]]'', and the ''preoperational-autism theory.'' *'''The extreme male brain theory''' The extreme male brain theory of autism, proposed by Simon Baron-Cohen in accordance with his empathizing-systemizing theory{{ref|guardianest}}, suggests that autistics have extreme forms of what he describes as the male brain: they are good (often very good) at systemizing, and very bad at empathizing. Poetry composed by people with autism{{ref|atpoetry}} would seem to challenge this idea, but the scientific validity of the idea is still under discussion. *'''The preoperational-autism theory''' The [[preopera]tional-autism theory]] states that autistic people are those who become neurologically impeded at the preoperational stage of cognitive development, where much of information processing is at a holistic-visual level and largely musical and nonverbal. This also addresses the issue of the theory of mind where children (autistic and non-autistic) at the preoperational stage of cognitive development have not attained decentralization from egocentrism. *'''Monotropism''' In this model of mind, mental events compete for and consume attention. In a polytropic mind, many interests have a moderate amount of attention put into them, while in a monotropic mind, the person's attention is put into a few more specialized interests. The theory argues that when many interests are aroused, multiple complex behaviors emerge, but if only a few interests are aroused, fewer—but more intense—behaviors emerge. A May 2005 article in ''The Autism Journal'' {{ref|autismmonothropism}} and information available from th^e group Autism and Computing{{ref|AandC}} delves further into this subject. *'''Underconnectivity theory''' [[Underconnectivity theory]] theorizes that autism is a system-wide brain disorder that limits the coordination and integration among brain areas. With the aid of [[fMRI]], it was seen that white matter, which connects various areas of the brain like cables, has abnormalities in people with autism. This theory may be related to the \"lack of central coherence\" theory proposed by Uta Frith, which suggests that children with autism are good at paying attention to detail but have difficulty integrating information from a range of sources. *'''Mind blindness theory''' This theory says that the autistic person has \"mind blindness\", or the inability to create models of other people's thoughts. The typical example of this is the [[Sally-Anne test]] where the subjects have to try to determine what a third party's action will be (see [[theory of mind]] also). Some people with autism do not seem to fit th_is model, however. *'''Faulty mirror neuron theory''' In some instances, brain areas that are active during the observation of hand-movements are silent in autistic individuals {{ref|refbot.766}}. The activity is markedly enhanced in non-autistic persons. So the social deficits observed in autism could be the result of a faulty [[mirror neuron]] system, which could also prevent normal development of [[empathy]]. *'''Social construct theory''' A spectrum disorder such as autism may be understood as a [[social construct]]. What this theory says is that the boundary between normal and abnormal is subjective and arbitrary, so autism does not exist as an objective entity, but only as a 'construct'. Note that this theory does ''not'' say that there are no neurological or quality-of-life differences - in average - between groups deemed 'autistic' and 'non-autistic'. To [[falsifiable|falsify]] this theory it would need to be shown that an objective characteristic can clearly separate both groups. For example, a g`enetic test that can fully substitute for a psychiatric diagnosis would undermine this theory. Incidentally, current knowledge about the [[Heritability of autism|genetics of autism]] would result in a test that is error-prone. The kind of phenomena this theory explains well are: (1) Differences in the [[prevalence of autism]] through time and geography, (2) The emergence of [[Asperger's syndrome]] as a form of autism, (3) The apparent difficulty in finding a single broad model to explain autistic behavior, etc. There is some overlap between this theory and the view that autism is just a 'way of being' or a form of '[[neurodiversity]]'. There are also some similarities between this theory and the view that autism is a 'blanket term'. == Epidemiology == While the [[epidemiology]] of autism is largely unknown, there is no shortage of theories in the area. In part, the mystery of autism has been slow to resolve due to its relatively recent identification as a disorder, and because government funding of autiasm research lags far behind that of less common diagnoses, such as juvenile diabetes. What funding is available has largely been directed toward epidemiological research, rather than clinical studies investigating possible environmental triggers. In addition, in recent times the number of diagnosed incidents of autism has risen dramatically. === Theories of the etiology of autism === *'''Genetics theory''' {{details|Heritability of autism}} Autism is known to be highly heritable. Research done by some institutions seek to find a way for early and more accurate detection of autism similar to [[Rett syndrome]]. Instead of searching for one particular gene as the cause for autism, many of the studies tend to search for complex interactions between a number of genes. A 2005 study done by the [[Duke Center for Human Genetics]] at [[Duke University]] finds some evidence that complex interactions between [[GABA]] (gamma aminobutyric acid) receptor genes might be part of the cause of autism. One of the funcbtions of the GABA genes is to inhibit the nerve system from firing. The theory is that somehow GABA genes suffer damage of some kind, leading to an overwhelmed sensory system causing the characteristics or symptoms of autism.{{ref|dukegeneticspressrelease}},{{ref|dukegenetics}} *'''Brain testosterone theory''' [[Simon Baron-Cohen]] proposes a model for autism based in his empathising-systemising (E-S) theory{{ref|guardianest2}}. His team at the [[Autism Research Centre]] in Cambridge, UK, measured testosterone levels in the amniotic fluid of mothers while pregnant. This is presumed to reflect levels in the babies themselves. The team found that the babies with higher fetal testosterone levels had a smaller vocabulary and made eye contact less often when they were a year old. His group has looked at the original 58 children again, at age four. The researchers found that the children with higher testosterone in the womb are less developed socially, and the interests of boys are more restricted than girlsc. The results are published in the ''Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry'' in a 2004 issue {{ref|BaronCohen2004CPP}}. Baron-Cohen theorizes that high fetal testosterone levels push brain development towards an improved ability to see patterns and analyze systems. Males supposedly tend to be better at these tasks than females. But the high levels are thought to inhibit the development of communication and empathy, which are allegedly typical female skills. (''New Scientist'', [[May 24]] [[2003]]) {{ref|BaronCohen2003NS}}. However, there is still no demonstrable evidence that testosterone levels affect brain development or autism. Gender or biodeterminism is a fashionable explanation for many human behaviors, but has been challenged by other professionals{{ref|bttchallenge}}. *'''Vaccine theory ''' Controversial research by [[Andrew Wakefield]] in the UK that was published in ''[[The Lancet]]'' in the February 1998 issue, dubbed the \"Wakefield Study\", suggested a possible link between autism adnd the [[MMR vaccine]]. The original research has come under criticism, largely due to an alleged conflict of interest on Wakefield's part {{ref|Wakefieldconflict}}. In March 2004, almost all of the paper's authors retracted its \"interpretation\" section, which claimed a potential link between pervasive developmental disorders and \"possible environmental triggers\". Critics have claimed that Wakefield's study contains many obvious flaws, including an inability to recognize bias in his sample. In October 2005, a study by the respected [[Cochrane Library]] said, on the basis of 31 pieces of research into the possible side effects of MMR, that it found no association between MMR and autism. Several independent groups, including the [[National Academy of Sciences]], have also conducted investigations and concluded that the evidence does not support a link. One study by Gillberg and Heijbel in 1998 examining the prevalence of autism in children born in Sweden from 1975 to 1984{{ref|gillbergheijbel}} foeund no difference in the prevalence of autistic children born before the introduction of the MMR vaccine in Sweden and those born after the vaccine was introduced. Another study, conducted by Madsen and other researchers in 2002, studied all children born in Denmark from January 1991 through December 1998{{ref|madsenetal}}. There were a total of 537,303 children in the study; 440,655 of the children were vaccinated with MMR and 96,648 were not. The researchers did not find a higher risk of autism in the vaccinated than in the unvaccinated group of children. Research in the U.S. has suggested a similar link between autism and the [[DPT vaccine]], although this is not referenced. However, unlike early claims from Wakefield, it is doubtful that a large majority of autism cases would come from this vaccine. Despite all the evidence to the contrary, controversy surrounding autism and vaccines [[autism epidemic|continues to this day]], and many polls, such as the autism coach poll{{ref|autismcoachpoll}}, whifch involved only 15 respondents, show vaccines as the most popular theory currently on the etiology of autism among parents of autistic children. In a controversial article in June 2005, [[Robert F. Kennedy, Jr.]] described research suggesting that it is not the vaccines themselves, but a mercury-based preservative called [[thimerosal]], used in some vaccine preparations (although not MMR), that may be a cause of autism{{ref|kennedythimerosal}}. Kennedy argues that autism was first observed in children who were born around the time of introduction of thimerosal into mass-produced vaccines, and that the incidence of autism in the United States is well correlated with the amounts of thimerosal children receive during their first two years of life. However, the CDC has described a link between thimerosal and autism as 'unlikely'.{{ref|www.cdc.gov.767}} In 1999 the Public Health Service (including the CDC, FDA, and NIH) recommended that thimerosal no longer be used in vaccine preparations. And while thimerogsal is now utilized in only a very few childhood vaccines, it has not been established that autism rates have dropped significantly. The CDC and some medical organizations have repeatedly asserted that no available evidence supports a causal link between thimerosal and autism. Critics have in turn presented criticism of the CDC analyses that suggest deliberate bias in the CDC research{{ref|www.generationrescue.org.75}}. For example, an analysis of autism rates by Madsen et al. in Demark noted that the incidence of autism remained fairly constant while thimerosal was being phased out and started to rise beginning in 1991, even after thimerosal was discontinued in 1992.{{ref|MasdenThimerosal}} Critics of this analysis point out that the methodology was biased{{ref|www.generationrescue.org.76}}, {{ref|www.generationrescue.org.77}}. Critics of the Denmark data also point out a significant increase in autism rates{{ref|www.generationrescue.org.78}} among children whose childhood vaccines contained thimerosalh. However, in Madsen et al.'s study, the amount of thimerosal in the vaccinations actually decreased while autism rates increased (specifically, during the period 1961–1970, infants had received a total of 400 µg of thimerosal by the age of 15 months, and during the period 1970–1992, infants had received a total of 250 µg of thimerosal at 10 months of age). The [[California Department of Developmental Services]] (DDS), considered to have the best reporting system for autism in the US{{ref|www.littlecanaries.org.768}}, has reported unprecedented decreases in new cases entering the system. The number of new cases went from 734 during the second quarter of 2005 to 678 new cases during the third quarter of 2005, a 7.5% decline in one quarter. Note that the total caseload handled by the state is still increasing, but the recent trend points to decreases in the caseload increase. For example, from the 2nd to the 3rd quarter of 2004, the caseload went from 25,020 to 25,769 (749 new cases). Between the 1ist and 2nd quarter of 2004, the caseload increased from 24,297 to 25,020 (723 new cases). These variations have led to speculation that removal of thimerosal from vaccines in California is starting to pay off. Others point out they are unremarkable and may simply be an indication that the awareness curve is starting to level off, and that new cases should be expected to decrease to population growth levels (1.6% annual) eventually, probably within a decade or two. Caseload increase between 2004 and 2005 was about 10%. *'''Early childhood trauma and lack of affection''' Dr. [[Bruno Bettelheim]] believed that autism was linked to early childhood trauma, and his work was highly influential for decades both in the medical and popular spheres. Parents, especially mothers, of autistics were blamed for having caused their child's condition through the withholding of affection. [[Leo Kanner]], who first described autism (''Autistic disturbances of affective contact'', 1943) originated the \"[[refrigerator motherj]]\" hypothesis, which held that autism was at least partly caused by a lack of affection from the mother. Although Kanner eventually renounced the theory and apologized publicly, Bettelheim put an almost exclusive emphasis on it in both his medical and his popular books. These theories did nothing to address the fact that having more than one autistic child in a family is exceptional, not the rule. Treatments based on these theories failed to help autistic children, and after Bettelheim's death it came out that his reported rates of cure (around 85%) were found to be fraudulent. Psychogenic theories in general have become increasingly unpopular, particularly since twin studies have shown that autism is highly heritable. Nevertheless, some case reports have found that deep institutional privation can result in \"quasi-autistic\" symptoms without the neuroanatomical differences {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.79}}{{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.80}}. Other case reports have suggested that children predisposed genektically to autism can develop \"autistic devices\" in response to traumatic events such as the birth of a sibling {{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.81}}. *'''Brain trauma''' [[Susan Bryson]] has claimed that some autistics have evidence of trauma to the brain stem in early development, and that a small portion of the [[thalidomide]] victims have become autistic. The victims' limbs were normal unless thalidomide use continued later in the pregnancy. The brain stem anomaly's most striking feature is inability to focus attention away from a stimulus in a short time like [[neurotypical]]s, as demonstrated in a psychological test. Some people claim the inability to shift attention quickly interferes with the ability to read nonverbal language where fast attention shifts are needed (such as eye language), suggesting that being nonverbal is not a primary feature of autism. Strong and shiftless focus is, however, a benefit in some areas like [[science]], [[programming]], and advanced [[mathematics]]. This is supportedl by the [[monotropism]] hypothesis. Dr. [[Bernard Rimland]]'s influential research and his book ''Infantile Autism'' (1967) argued that autism was not caused by childhood trauma or abuse, but by damage to certain areas of the brain, particularly the reticular formation which associates present sensory input with memories of past experiences. Dr. Rimland is a foremost advocate of the theory that autism may be precipitated by mercury and heavy metal toxicity{{ref|curezonemercury}}. He also is prominent in increasingly common claims of successful treatment of autism in children—particularly regarding improvements in ability to comprehend the spoken word—with the [[gluten-free, casein-free diet]] and mercury [[chelation therapy]]. Others claim Dr. [[Bernard Rimland]]'s methods alleviate the symptoms of [[heavy metal poisoning]], but not autism. Curing heavy metal poisoning when it is present is a worthy goal (it helps with IQ and other learning difficulties as well as general health), but claimimng a benefit for autism is a misrepresentation. Heavy metal poisoning may be more common among autistics due to a severe [[metallothionein]] deficiency, but more evidence is needed to substantiate the idea that heavy metals cause autism. It is still being studied. The presence of heavy metals, particularly mercury, might make an autism diagnosis more likely, however. *'''Viral or bacterial infection''' A growing body of peer-reviewed studies published in mainstream journals has shown that many common diseases of previously unknown origin are caused by the presence of slowly acting [[viruses]]. For example, cervical cancer is caused by the [[human papilloma virus]]; some cases of liver cancer are caused by [[hepatitis]] C or B; [[Schizophrenia]] may be caused by [[Borna virus]]. [[Paul W. Ewald]], among others, argues that the available data on the origin of autism is consistent with it being caused by a virus or infection. Alternatively, it was hypothesized that certain antibiotics rather than an infectnion may be associated with autism; that is, depending on certain conditions they could be either harmful or helpful{{ref|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.769}}. === Increase in diagnoses of autism === {{details|Autism epidemic}} [[Image:autismnocgraph.png|right|thumb|400px|The number of reported cases of autism has increased dramatically over the past decade. Statistics in graph from the [[National Center for Health Statistics]].]] There has been an explosion worldwide in reported cases of autism over the last ten years, which is largely reminiscent of increases in the diagnosis of [[schizophrenia]] and [[multiple personality disorder]] in the twentieth century. This has brought rise to a number of different theories as to the nature of the sudden increase. Epidemiologists argue that the rise in diagnoses in the United States is partly or entirely attributable to changes in diagnostic criteria, reclassifications, public awareness, and the incentive to receive federally mandated services. A widely cited study from othe [[M.I.N.D. Institute]] in California ([[17 October]] [[2002]]), claimed that the increase in autism is real, even after those complicating factors are accounted for (see reference in this section below). Other researchers remain unconvinced (see references below), including Dr. Chris Johnson, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Texas Health Sciences Center at [[San Antonio]] and cochair of the [[American Academy of Pediatrics]] Autism Expert Panel, who says, \"There is a chance we're seeing a true rise, but right now I don't think anybody can answer that question for sure.\" ([[Newsweek]] reference below). The answer to this question has significant ramifications on the direction of research, since a ''real increase'' would focus more attention (and research funding) on the search for environmental factors, while ''little or no real increase'' would focus more attention to genetics. On the other hand, it is conceivable that certain environmental factors (vaccination, diet, societal changeps) may have a particular impact on people with a specific genetic constitution. There is little public research on the effects of [[in vitro fertilization]] on the number of incidences of autism. One of the more popular theories is that there is a connection between \"geekdom\" and autism. This is hinted, for instance, by a ''Wired Magazine'' article in 2001 entitled \"The [[Geek]] Syndrome\", which is a point argued by many in the autism rights movement{{ref|Wired}}. This article, many professionals assert, is just one example of the media's application of mental disease labels to what is actually variant normal behavior—they argue that shyness, lack of athletic ability or social skills, and intellectual interests, even when they seem unusual to others, are not in themselves signs of autism or Asperger's syndrome. Others assert that it is actually the medical profession which is applying mental disease labels to children who in the past would have simply been accepted as a little different or evqen labeled 'gifted'. See [[clinomorphism]] for further discussion of this issue. Due to the recent publicity surrounding autism and autistic spectrum disorders, an increasing number of adults are choosing to seek diagnoses of high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome in light of symptoms they currently experience or experienced during childhood. Since the cause of autism is thought to be at least partly genetic, a proportion of these adults seek their own diagnosis specifically as follow-up to their children's diagnoses. Because autism falls into the [[pervasive developmental disorder]] category, strictly speaking, symptoms must have been present in a given patient before age seven in order to make a [[differential diagnosis]]. == Therapies == There are many different therapies, but the effect they have varies dramatically from person to person. Remediation of the debilitating aspects of autism is also hindered by widespread disagreement over its nature and causes, and by a lack of recognized and erffective therapies. The behavioral and cognitive functioning of individuals with autism might improve with the help of psychosocial and pharmacological interventions. Among psychosocial treatments, intensive, sustained special education programs and [[behavior therapy]] early in life might increase the ability of children with autism to acquire language and the ability to learn. In adults with autism, some studies have found beneficial effects of the [[antidepressant]] medications [[clomipramine]] and [[fluoxetine]] and the [[antipsychotic]] medication [[haloperidol]]. In many cases quite a few medications will have to be tried until a successful drug is found, and the drug may lose effectiveness later in life, complicating matters further. ===Applied Behavior Analysis=== A major breakthrough (in some respects) in the remediation of autistic behaviors came through work spearheaded by [[O. Ivar Lovaas]], who believed that success could be obtained by [[behaviorism|behavioral]] approaches. :''Lovaas's approaches—often referred to as Discrete Trial, Intensive Behavior Intervention, and Applied Behavior Analysis—are some of the best known and most widely used in the field and focus on the development of attention, imitation, receptive or expressive language, and pre-academic and self-help skills. Using a one-to-one therapist-child ratio and the \"antecedent-behavior-consequence\" (ABC) model, interventions based on this work involve trials or tasks. Each consists of (a) an antecedent, which is a directive or request for the child to perform an action; (b) a behavior, or response from the child, which may be categorized as successful performance, noncompliance, or no response; and (c) a consequence, defined as the reaction from the therapist, which ranges from strong positive reinforcement to a strong negative response, \"No!\"''(Autism Society of America, 2001){{ref|aanaba}}. Lovaas' ''[[Applied Behavioral Analysis]]'' (ABA) methods were the first scientifically validated therapy for autismt. Early intervention, generally before school-age, seems to be critical to achieving optimal outcomes. ABA techniques based on [[B. F. Skinner]]'s ''[[Verbal Behavior]]'' have succeeded in helping nonverbal children start to talk, typically going from zero words to several dozen. By allowing children to express their needs, even rudimentary speech can alleviate frustration and tantrums. The scientific validity of Lovaas's methods has been questioned by many professionals as well as parents and autistics themselves. Lovaas's initial studies looked promising but there are no [[double-blind]] studies that compare the Lovaas approach against a control group not receiving ABA. Sallows and Graupner's 2005 study, which compared groups treated by professionals vs. parents, replicated the results of Lovaas, but found little difference in outcome between the groups. This study represents the most comprehensive and rigorous replication to date, and their findings nearly mirror Lovaas's. Many also feel that therue are serious [[Ethical challenges to autism treatment|ethical problems]], and point out that early ABA was based around the use of [[aversives]] which are confusing and painful {{ref|sentexaba}}. ABA may not be appropriate for every autistic or developmentally delayed child. ABA has come into widespread use only in the last decade and the demand is outstripping the supply of committed and experienced service providers. As a result, parents of children need to be extra vigilant in choosing appropriate treatments for their children and ''especially'' in choosing providers, who may be inexperienced, use questionable methods or even deceive parents that they are competent to run an ABA or any other program. Such problems have led to horror stories from some parents. {{ref|abahorror1}} {{ref|abahorror2}} ===Relationship Development Intervention=== [[Relationship Development Intervention]] (RDI) is a research-based treatment program developed by Dr. Steven E. Gutstein. Whereas ABA aims to teach social skilvls directly, RDI focuses on building the \"dynamic intelligence\" that underlies the acquisition of those social skills in [[neurotypical]] children. It also focuses on the building blocks of motivation by developing [[episodic memory]] (seen as impaired in autism) and filling it with the child's own personal stories of competence and mastery. RDI emphasizes declarative (as opposed to imperative) communication, and aims for an appropriate balance of verbal and nonverbal communication. Dr. Gutstein claims that 70% of his patients improved their [[ADOS]] score within 18 months, which is unprecedented (it was previously thought that improvement on the ADOS was impossible), and that a similar proportion are able to enter school without a shadow teacher or other personal assistant. ===Son-Rise=== The [[Son-Rise]] program was developed by Samahria & Barry Neil Kaufman, who founded the [[Option Institute]] to promulgate their more general philosophy upon which the Son-Rise program is partially based, and two provide training in this treatment approach. It is a home-based program with emphasis on eye contact, accepting the child without judgment, and engaging the child in a noncoercive way. The Association for Science in Autism Treatment (ASAT){{ref|asatonline}} maintains a Description of the Son-Rise Program{{ref|asatsonrise}}. Criticism about the Son-Rise program revolves around the fact that there are no scientific studies that validate its claims. Critics have also pointed out that it may provide \"false hope\" to desperate parents. ===Snoezelen=== So-called [[Snoezelen|Snoezelen rooms]] that provide patients with a soothing and stimulating environment of light, color, music and scent have been used in the therapy of autistic patients since the [[1970]]s. They were developed in the [[Netherlands]] and are particularly popular in [[Germany]]. ===Autism and computing=== Many studies have shown that computers help calm autistic children and help them communicate,{{ref|atcomputerstudy}} and that often autxistic children take to computers more quickly than non-autistic people. However, evidence suggesting that computers help autistic children communicate ''without'' computers is less promising, and autistic children are not immune to the effects of overuse of computers. One can deduce from this that autistic children often communicate better through e-mail than normal speech, but in rare cases the reverse can be true also. Some groups have proposed more precise scientific reasons for why this happens. One such group, the nonprofit Autism and Computing{{ref|AandC2}}, claims that autism is [[monotropism]] (as stated in an [[Autism#Monotropism|above section]]), and they argue that computers provide an easy way of joining attention tunnels (a.k.a. undivided attention) with minimal discomfort, circumventing some of the most disabling features of autistic spectrum disorders. ===Gluten-free, casein-free diet=== {{cookbookpar|Gluten-Free}} Dr. [[Karl Ludwig Reichelt]] claims to have found [[peptide]]s from [[caysein]] and [[gluten]] that worsen the symptoms of autistic children. These [[peptide]]s are [[casomorphin]]es and [[gluten exorphin]]s, which influence the brain. According to Dr. Reichelt, significant improvement has been seen in the symptoms of some of his patients with autism who had been put on a diet that omits these peptides. The diet is called the [[gluten-free, casein-free diet]]. Some physicians see diet as a central part of the treatment, but in addition to many other treatments at the same time{{ref|awwhatisdan}}. ==Sociology== Due to the complexity of autism, there are many facets of [[sociology]] that need to be considered when discussing it, such as the culture possible with it. In addition, there are several communities being formed within the autistic community, and in recent times they have become a bit polarized. ===Community and politics=== {{details|Autistic community}} {{details|Autism rights movement}} Much like many other controversies in the world, the autistic community itselzf has splintered off into several groups. Essentially, these groups are those who seek a cure for autism, dubbed ''pro-cure'', those who do not desire a cure for autism and as such resist it, dubbed ''anti-cure'', and the many people caught in the middle of the two. In recent history, with scientists learning more about autism and possibly coming closer to a cure, some members of the \"anti-cure\" movement [[Autistic_community#Declaration_from_the_autism_community|sent a letter to the United Nations]] demanding to be treated as a minority group rather than a group with a [[mental disability]] or disease. Websites such as autistics.org{{ref|refbot.770}} present the view of the anti-cure group. There are numerous resources available for autistics from many groups. Due to the fact that many autistics find it easier to communicate online than in person, many of these resources are available online. In addition, sometimes successful autistic adults in a local community will help out children with autism,{ much in the way a master would help out an apprentice, for example. 2002 was declared [[Autism Awareness Year]] in the [[United Kingdom]]—this idea was initiated by [[Ivan and Charika Corea]], parents of an autistic child, Charin. Autism Awareness Year was led by the [[British Institute of Brain Injured Children]], [[Disabilities Trust]], [[National Autistic Society]], [[Autism London]] and 800 organizations in the United Kingdom. It had the personal backing of [[United Kingdom|British]] Prime Minister [[Tony Blair]] and parliamentarians of all parties in the [[Palace of Westminster]]. ===Culture=== {{details|Autistic culture}} With the recent increases in autism recognition and new approaches to educating and socializing autistics, an ''autistic culture'' has begun to develop. Similar to [[deaf culture]], autistic culture is based in a belief that autism is a unique way of being and not a disorder to be cured. There are some commonalities which are specific to autism in general as a cultur|e, not just \"autistic culture\". It is a common misperception that people with autism do not marry; many do get married. Often, they marry another person with autism, although this is not always the case. Many times autistics are attracted to other autistics due to shared interests or obsessions, but more often than not the attraction is due to simple compatibility with personality types, the same as is true for non-autistics. Autistics who communicate have explained that companionship is as important to autistics as it is to anyone else. Multigenerational autistic families have also recently become a bit more common. The interests of autistic people and so-called \"[[geeks]]\" or \"[[Nerd|nerds]]\" can often overlap as autistic people can sometimes become preoccupied with certain subjects, much like the variant normal behavior geeks experience. However, in practice many autistic people have difficulty with working in groups, which impairs them even in the most \"technical\" of situations. ===Autis}tic adults=== [[image:Grandin2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Temple Grandin]], one of the more successful adults with autism. Photograph courtesy Joshua Nathaniel Pritikin and William Lawrence Jarrold.]] Some autistic adults are able to work successfully in mainstream jobs, usually those with high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome. Nevertheless, communication and social programs often cause difficulties in many areas of the autistic's life. Other autistics are capable of employment in sheltered workshops under the supervision of managers trained in working with persons with disabilities. A nurturing environment at home, at school, and later in job training and at work, helps autistic people continue to learn and to develop throughout their lives. Some argue that the internet allows autistic individuals to communicate and form online communities, in addition to being able to find occupations such as independent consulting, which does generally not require much human interaction offline. In t~he [[United States]], the public schools' responsibility for providing services ends when the autistic person is in their 20s, depending on each state. The family is then faced with the challenge of finding living arrangements and employment to match the particular needs of their adult child, as well as the programs and facilities that can provide support services to achieve these goals. === Autistic savants === {{Main|autistic savant}} The autistic savant phenomenon is sometimes seen in autistic people. The term is used to describe a person who is autistic and has extreme talent in a certain area of study. Although there is a common association between savants and autism (an association created by the 1988 film ''[[Rain Man]]''), most autistic people are not [[savants]]. Calendar [[calculators]] and fast [[programming]] skills are the most common form. The famous example is [[Daniel Tammet]], the subject of the [[documentary film]] ''[[The Brain Man]]'' {{ref|guardianbrainman}} ([[Kim Peek]], one of the inspirations for [[Dustin Hoffman]]'s character in the film ''[[Rain Man]]'', is not autistic). \"Bright Splinters of the Mind\" is a book that explores this issue further. == Other pervasive developmental disorders == Autism and Asperger's syndrome are just two of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs). The three other pervasive developmental disorders are [[Rett syndrome]], [[Childhood disintegrative disorder]], and [[PDD not otherwise specified|Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]]. Some of these are related to autism, while some of them are entirely separate conditions. === Rett syndrome === [[Rett syndrome]] is relatively rare, affecting almost exclusively females, one out of 10,000 to 15,000. After a period of normal development, sometime between 6 and 18 months, autism-like symptoms begin to appear. The little girl's mental and social development regresses; she no longer responds to her parents and pulls away from any social contact. If she has been talking, she stops; she cannot control her feet; she wrings her hands. Some of these early symptoms may be confused for autism. Some of the problems associated with Rett syndrome can be treated. [[Physical therapy|Physical]], [[Occupational therapy|occupational]], and [[Speech therapy|speech]] therapy can help with problems of coordination, movement, and [[speech]]. Scientists sponsored by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development have discovered that a mutation in the sequence of a single gene causes Rett syndrome, and can physically test for it with a 80% accuracy rate {{ref|nihrett}}. Rett syndrome in the past was sometimes classified as an autistic spectrum disorder, however most scientists agree that Rett syndrome is a separate developmental disorder and not part of the autistic spectrum {{ref|brighttotsrett}}. ===Childhood disintegrative disorder=== [[Childhood disintegrative disorder]] (CDD, and sometimes abbreviated as CHDD also) is a condition appearing in 3 or 4 year old children who have developed normally until age 2. Over several months, the child will deteriorate in intellectual, social, and language functioning from previously normal behaviour. This long period of normal development before regression helps differentiate CDD from Rett syndrome (and in fact it must be differentiated from autism in testing). The cause for CDD is unknown (thus it may be a spectrum disorder) but current evidence suggests it has something to do with the central nervous system {{ref|yalecdd}} {{ref|nihcdd}}. === Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified === [[PDD not otherwise specified|Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified]], or PDD-NOS, is referred to as a ''subthreshold'' condition because it is a classification which is given to someone who suffers from impairments in social interaction, communication, and/or stereotyped behaviour but does not meet the criteria for one of the other four pervasive developmental disorders. Unlike the other four pervasive developmental disorders, PDD-NOS has no specific guidelines for diagnosis, so the person may have a lot of characteristics of an autistic person, or few to none at all. Note that pervasive developmental disorder is not a diagnosis, just a term to refer to the five mentioned conditions, while PDD-NOS is an official diagnosis {{ref|yalepddnos}}. ==See also== * '''General''' :* [[Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders]] :* [[Early Childhood Autism]] :* [[Heritability of autism]] * '''Groups''' :* [[Aspies For Freedom]] :* [[National Alliance for Autism Research]] * '''Controversy''' :* [[Controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum]] :* [[Controversies in autism]] :* [[Ethical challenges to autism treatment]] * '''Lists''' :* [[List of autism-related topics]] :* [[List of fictional characters on the autistic spectrum]] :* [[List of autistic people]] ==References== * {{Web reference | author= | title=Rett syndrome (NIH Publication No. 01-4960) | publisher=Rockville, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development | publishyear=2001 | work=Rett syndrome | url=http://www.nichd.nih.gov/publications/pubskey.cfm?from=autism | date=July 30 | year= 2005 }} * {{Journal reference issue | Author=Frombonne E. | Title=Prevalence of childhood disintegrative disorder | Journal=Autism | Year=2002 | Volume=6 | Issue=2 | Pages=149-157}} * {{Journal reference | Author=Volkmar RM and Rutter M. | Title=Childhood disintegrative disorder: Results of the DSM-IV autism field trial | Journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | Year=1995 | Volume=34 | Pages=1092-1095}} * {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Ewald | given=Paul | title=Plague Time | date=April 2001 | org=Popular Science | url=http://www.centurytel.net/tjs11/bug/ewald1.htm}} * {{Web reference | title=PANDAS (Paediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococci) and PITAND (Paediatric Infection-triggered Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders) | work=PANDAS & PITAND Syndromes | url=http://www.webpediatrics.com/pandas.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} * {{Web reference | title=Closer to Truth: PBS, with Paul Ewald | work=Microbes -- Friend or Foe? | url=http://www.pbs.org/kcet/closertotruth/explore/show_05.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} * {{Web reference | title=M.I.N.D. 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Davis| url=http://www.ucdmc.ucdavis.edu/news/MINDepi_study.html | date=March 6| year=2005 }} * {{Citenews | surname=Stenson | given=Jacqueline | title=As autism cases soar, a search for clues | date=[[24 February]] [[2005]] | org=Newsweek | url=http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/6947652/}} * {{Citenews | surname=Goode | given=Erica | title=Autism Statistics: More and More Autism Cases | date=[[26 January]] [[2004]] | org=New York Times | url=http://www.autisticsociety.org/article262.html}} * {{Journal reference issue | Author=Wing L, Potter D. | Title=The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising? | Journal=Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews | Volume=8 | Issue=3 | Year=2002 | Pages=151–61}} ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=12216059&dopt=Abstract abstract]) * {{Journal reference issue | Author=Croen LA, Grether JK, Hoogstrate J, Selvin S. | Title=The changing prevalence of autism in California | Journal=Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders| Volume=32| Issue=3 | Year=2002 Jun | Pages=207-15}} ([http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=12108622 abstract]) * Manev R, Manev H. Aminoglycoside antibiotics and autism: a speculative hypothesis. BMC Psychiatry. 2001;1:5. Epub 2001 [[10 October]].[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11696245&query_hl=60] * Strock, Margaret (2004). Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders). NIH Publication No. NIH-04-5511, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, 40 pp. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/autism.cfm ==Footnotes== # {{note|bnat}} {{Web reference | title=BehaveNet autism description | url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/autistic.htm | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|bnas}} {{Web reference | title=BehaveNet aspergers description | url=http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/disorders/asperger.htm | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|cmuut}} {{Web reference | title=CMU autism description | url=http://www.cmu.edu/PR/releases04/040727_autism.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|guardianest}} {{Web reference | title=empathising-systemising (E-S) theory| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4649492-111414,00.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|atpoetry}} {{Web reference | title=Autistic poetry example | url=http://www.autistics.org/library/tito-can.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|autismmonothropism}} {{Journal reference issue | Author=Murray D, Lesser M, Lawson W. | Title=Attention, monotropism and the diagnostic criteria for autism | Journal=Autism | Year=May 2005 | Volume=9 | Issue=2 | Pages=139-56}} [http://www.autismandcomputing.org.uk/attention.pdf Online PDF version from autismandcomputing.org.uk] # {{note|AandC}} {{Web reference | title=Autism and Computing | url=http://www.autismandcomputing.org.uk | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|refbot.766}} {{Web reference | title=Clues to autism's neural basis | url=http://www.news-medical.net/?id=7651 | date=December 11 | year=2005 }} # {{note|dukegeneticspressrelease}} {{Web reference | title=Complex Gene Interactions Account for Autism Risk | url=http://news.mc.duke.edu/global/print.php?context=%2Fnews%2Farticle.php&id=9151 | date=August 10 | year=2005 }} # {{note|dukegenetics}} {{Journal reference issue | Author=D. Q. Ma, P. L. Whitehead, M. M. Menold, E. R. Martin, A. E. Ashley-Koch, H. Mei, M. D. Ritchie, G. R. DeLong, R. K. Abramson, H. H. Wright, M. L. Cuccaro, J. P. Hussman, J. R. Gilbert, and M. A. Pericak-Vance | Title=Identification of Significant Association and Gene-Gene Interaction of GABA Receptor Subunit Genes in Autism | Journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics | Year=September 2005 | Volume=77 | Issue=3 | Pages=477-88}} ([http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/cgi-bin/resolve?AJHG42329ABS abstract]) # {{note|guardianest2}} {{Web reference | title=empathising-systemising (E-S) theory| url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4649492-111414,00.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|BaronCohen2004CPP}} {{Journal reference | Author=Knickmeyer, R, Baron-Cohen, S, Hines, M, & Raggatt, P | Title=Foetal testosterone, social relationships, and restricted interests in children | Journal=Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry | Year=2004 | Volume=45 | Pages=1-13}} # {{note|BaronCohen2003NS}} {{Journal reference issue | Author=Baron-Cohen, Simon | Title=The Essential Difference | Journal=The New Scientist | Year=[[24 May]] [[2003]] | Volume=178 | Issue=2396 | Pages=54}} # {{note|bttchallenge}} {{Web reference | title=Challenges to Brain Testosterone Theory | url=http://www.gender.org.uk/about/00_diffs.htm | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|Wakefieldconflict}} {{Web reference | title=Wakefield conflict | url=http://briandeer.com/mmr-lancet.htm | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|gillbergheijbel}} {{Journal reference | Author=Gillberg C, Heijbel H. | Title=MMR and autism | Journal=Autism | Year=1998 | Volume=2 | Pages=423-4}} # {{note|madsenetal}} {{Journal reference issue | Author=Madsen KM, Hviid A, Vestergaard M, Schendel D, Wohlfahrt J, Thorsen P, Olsen J, Melbye M.A | Title=Population-based study of measles, mumps, and rubella vaccination and autism | Journal=N Engl J Med. | Year=[[7 November]] [[2002]] | Volume=347 | Issue=19 | Pages=1477-82}} # {{note|autismcoachpoll}} {{Web reference | title=Autism Coach Immunization Poll | url=http://autismcoach.com/Autism%20Immunization%20Poll.htm | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|kennedythimerosal}} {{Web reference | title=Deadly Immunity | url=http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/story/_/id/7395411 | date=July 25 | year=2005 }} # {{note|www.cdc.gov.767}} {{Web reference | title=NIP: Vacsafe/Concerns/Thimerosal/FAQs on Vaccines | url=http://www.cdc.gov/nip/vacsafe/concerns/thimerosal/faqs-thimerosal.htm | date=December 11 | year=2005 }} # {{note|www.generationrescue.org.75}} {{Web reference | title=VSD.SafeMinds. critique.ppt | url=http://www.generationrescue.org/pdf/safeminds.pdf | date=2005-12-17 }} # {{note|MasdenThimerosal}}{{Journal reference issue | Author=Madsen KM, Lauritsen MB, Pedersen CB, Thorsen P, Plesner AM, Andersen PH, Mortensen PB | Title=Thimerosal and the occurrence of autism: negative ecological evidence from Danish population-based data | Journal=Pediatrics | Year=2003 | Pages=604-6 | Volume=112 | Issue=3 Pt 1 }} PMID 12949291 # {{note|www.generationrescue.org.76}} {{Web reference | title=Microsoft PowerPoint - AutismAuthorsNetwork-12Oct03.ppt | url=http://www.generationrescue.org/pdf/safeminds3.pdf | date=2005-12-17 }} # {{note|www.generationrescue.org.77}} {{Web reference | title=Microsoft Word - Hviid et al JAMA - Safe Minds Analysis | url=http://www.generationrescue.org/pdf/bernard2.pdf | date=2005-12-17 }} # {{note|www.generationrescue.org.78}} {{Web reference | title=Journal04-03a.cdr | url=http://www.generationrescue.org/pdf/stott.pdf | date=2005-12-17 }} # {{note|www.littlecanaries.org.768}} {{Web reference | title=California Stats | url=http://www.littlecanaries.org/california_stats.htm | date=December 11 | year=2005 }} # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.79}} {{Web reference | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11483469&query_hl=1 | date=2005-12-17 }} # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.80}} {{Web reference | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16167089&query_hl=1 | date=2005-12-17 }} # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.81}} {{Web reference | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11109576&query_hl=4 | date=2005-12-17 }} # {{note|curezonemercury}} {{Web reference | title=Rimland mercury theory | url=http://www.curezone.com/art/read.asp?ID=79&db=2&C0=735 | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.769}} {{Web reference | title=Entrez PubMed | url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11696245&query_hl=60 | date=December 11 | year=2005 }} # {{note|Wired}} {{Citenewsauthor | surname=Silberman | given=Steve | title=The Geek Syndrome | date=December 2001 | org=Wired | url=http://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.12/aspergers_pr.html}} # {{note|aanaba}} {{Web reference | title=Autism Society of America ABA study | url=http://www.aann.org/ce/jnn04-02b.htm | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|sentexaba}} {{Web reference | title=ABA and autistics controversy | url=http://www.sentex.net/~nexus23/naa_aba.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|abahorror1}} {{Web reference | title=ABA Horror story 1 | url=http://users.1st.net/cibra/OpenLetter.htm | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|abahorror2}} {{Web reference | title=ABA Horror story 2 | url=http://users.1st.net/cibra/warningindex.htm | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|asatonline}} {{Web reference | title=ASAT Online | url=http://www.asatonline.org | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|asatsonrise}} {{Web reference | title=ASAT Online - Son-Rise | url=http://www.asatonline.org/about_autism/autism_info13.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|atcomputerstudy}} {{Web reference | title=Autism and Computers Department of Education study | url=http://scott.mprojects.wiu.edu/~eccts/articles/autism1.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|AandC2}} {{Web reference | title=Autism and Computing | url=http://www.autismandcomputing.org.uk | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|awwhatisdan}} {{Web reference | title=Gluten and Casien-free diet with other treatments | url=http://www.autismwebsite.com/ari/dan/whatisdan.htm | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|refbot.770}} {{Web reference | title=autistics.org: The REAL Voice of Autism (See above) | url=http://www.autistics.org | date=December 11 | year=2005 }} # {{note|guardianbrainman}} {{Web reference | title=Guardian \"Brain Man\" article | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/weekend/story/0,3605,1409903,00.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|nihrett}} {{Web reference | title=NIH Rett description | url=http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/rett/detail_rett.htm | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|brighttotsrett}} {{Web reference | title=Bright Tots Rett description | url=http://www.brighttots.com/Rett_Syndrome.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|yalecdd}} {{Web reference | title=Yale CDD description | url=http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/cdd.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|nihcdd}} {{Web reference | title=NIH CDD description | url=http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/001535.html | date=July 30 | year=2005 }} # {{note|yalepddnos}} {{Web reference | title=PDD-NOS at Yale | url=http://info.med.yale.edu/chldstdy/autism/pddnos.html | date=August 22 | year=2005 }} ==External links== * '''General''' :[http://www.wrongplanet.net WrongPlanet.net - The Community and Resource for Autism] : [http://www.autism-spectrum-disorder.com Autism-Spectrum-Disorder.com] - Autism Spectrum Disorder : [http://www.ericdigests.org/2000-3/autism.htm EricDigests.org] - 'Teaching Students with Autism', Glen Dunlap, Lise Fox, ERIC Digest (October, 1999) : [http://observer.guardian.co.uk/magazine/story/0,11913,1639392,00.html Autistic and Proud] Describes new discoveries about autism, autistics speaking for themselves. * ''Blogs'' : [http://autism.about.com/ About.Com] - 'Autism/Pervasive Developmental Disorders', Adelle Jameson Tilton, [[About.com]] : [http://aboutautism.blogspot.com/ AboutAutism.blogspot.com] - 'Autism News and More' : [http://www.adventuresinautism.blogspot.com/ AdventuresInAutism.blogspot.com] - 'Adventures in Autism' : [http://www.autismsymptoms.blogspot.com blogspot.com] - 'Autism Symptoms' * ''Organizations'' : [http://www.autism.org/contents.html Autism.org] - 'Center for the Study of Autism', Autism Research Institute (founded by [[Bernard Rimland]]) : [http://www.autism-society.org/site/PageServer Autism-Society.org] - [[Autism Society of America]] : [http://www.autismwebsite.com/ari/index.htm autismwebsite.com] - 'Autism Research Institute', a clearinghouse for information relating to autism, particularly the biomedical treatment approach * ''Resources'' : [http://www.info.autism.org.uk/ Autism.org.uk] - 'PARIS: Public Autism Resource & Information Service' (directory of UK autism services) : [http://www.autism-resources.com/ Autism-Resources.com] - 'Autism Resources: offering information and links regarding the developmental disabilities autism and Asperger's Syndrome' : [http://www.autismtoday.com/ AutismToday.com] - 'everything you need to know about autism', Autism Today : [http://www.teachers.tv/autism Teachers.tv] - 'Focus on Autism' (selection of documentaries, interviews, etc.) : [http://rsaffran.tripod.com/aba.html ABA Resources for Recovery from Autism] - Information about and resource guide for behavioral intervention for autism {{Pervasive developmental disorders}} [[Category:Autism]] [[Category:Childhood psychiatric disorders]] [[Category:Disability]] [[Category:Communication disorders]] [[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ISCDRHP]] [[Category:Neurological disorders]] [[de:Autismus]] [[es:Autismo]] [[eo:Aŭtismo]] [[fr:Autisme]] [[ia:Autismo]] [[it:Autismo]] [[he:אוטיזם]] [[hu:Autizmus]] [[ms:Autisme]] [[nl:Autisme]] [[ja:自閉症]] [[ka:აუტიზმი]] [[no:Autisme]] [[pl:Autyzm]] [[pt:Autismo]] [[simple:Autism]] [[sr:Аутизам]] [[fi:Autismi]] [[sv:Autism]] [[ta:மதியிறுக்கம்]] [[tr:Otizm]] [[zh:自閉症]]utf-8hereas the albedo of the [[Moon]] is about 12%. In astronomy, the albedo of satellites and asteroids can be used to infer surface composition, most notably ice content. [[Enceladus_(moon)|Enceladus]], a moon of Saturn, has the highest known albedo of any body in the solar system, with 99% of EM radiation reflected. Human activities have changed the albedo (via forest clearance and farming, for example) of various areas around the globe. However, quantification of this effect is difficult on the global scale: it is not clear whether the changes have tended to increase or decrease [[global warming]]. The \"classical\" example of albedo effect is the snow-temperature feedback. If a snow covered area warms and the snow melts, the albedo decreases, more sunlight is absorbed, and the temperature tends to increase. The converse is true: if snow forms, a cooling cycle happens. The intensity of the albedo effect depends on the size of the change in albedo and the amount of [[insolation]]; for this reason it can be potentially very large in the tropics. == Some examples of albedo effects == === Fairbanks, Alaska === According to the [[National Climatic Data Center]]'s GHCN 2 data, which is composed of 30-year smoothed climatic means for thousands of weather stations across the world, the college weather station at [[Fairbanks]], [[Alaska]], is about 3 °C (5 °F) warmer than the airport at Fairbanks, partly because of drainage patterns but also largely because of the lower albedo at the college resulting from a higher concentration of [[pine]] [[tree]]s and therefore less open snowy ground to reflect the heat back into space. Neunke and Kukla have shown that this difference is especially marked during the late [[winter]] months, when [[solar radiation]] is greater. === The tropics === Although the albedo-temperature effect is most famous in colder regions of Earth, because more [[snow]] falls there, it is actually much stronger in tropical regions because in the tropics there is consistently more sunlight. When [[Brazil]]ian ranchers cut down dark, tropical [[rainforest]] trees to replace them with even darker soil in order to grow crops, the average temperature of the area appears to increase by an average of about 3 °C (5 °F) year-round, which is a significant amount. === Small scale effects === Albedo works on a smaller scale, too. People who wear dark clothes in the summertime put themselves at a greater risk of [[heatstroke]] than those who wear white clothes. === Pine forests === The albedo of a [[pine]] forest at 45°N in the winter in which the trees cover the land surface completely is only about 9%, among the lowest of any naturally occurring land environment. This is partly due to the color of the pines, and partly due to multiple scattering of sunlight within the trees which lowers the overall reflected light level. Due to light penetration, the ocean's albedo is even lower at about 3.5%, though this depends strongly on the angle of the incident radiation. Dense [[swamp]]land averages between 9% and 14%. [[Deciduous tree]]s average about 13%. A [[grass]]y field usually comes in at about 20%. A barren field will depend on the color of the soil, and can be as low as 5% or as high as 40%, with 15% being about the average for farmland. A [[desert]] or large [[beach]] usually averages around 25% but varies depending on the color of the sand. [Reference: Edward Walker's study in the Great Plains in the winter around 45°N]. === Urban areas === Urban areas in particular have very unnatural values for albedo because of the many human-built structures which absorb light before the light can reach the surface. In the northern part of the world, cities are relatively dark, and Walker has shown that their average albedo is about 7%, with only a slight increase during the summer. In most tropical countries, cities average around 12%. This is similar to the values found in northern suburban transitional zones. Part of the reason for this is the different natural environment of cities in tropical regions, e.g., there are more very dark trees around; another reason is that portions of the tropics are very poor, and city buildings must be built with different materials. Warmer regions may also choose lighter colored building materials so the structures will remain cooler. === Trees === Because trees tend to have a low albedo, removing forests would tend to increase albedo and thereby cool the planet. Cloud feedbacks further complicate the issue. In seasonally snow-covered zones, winter albedos of treeless areas are 10% to 50% higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily. Studies by the [[Hadley Centre]] have investigated the relative (generally warming) effect of albedo change and (cooling) effect of [[carbon sequestration]] on planting forests. They found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool; new forests in high latitudes (e.g. Siberia) were neutral or perhaps warming [http://66.102.11.104/search?q=cache:o7LD-owSkNgJ:www.ulapland.fi/home/arktinen/feed_pdf/Betts_revised.pdf+hadley+albedo+forest&hl=en]. === Snow === Snow albedos can be as high as 90%. This is for the ideal example, however: fresh deep snow over a featureless landscape. Over [[Antarctica]] they average a little more than 80%. If a marginally snow-covered area warms, snow tends to melt, lowering the albedo, and hence leading to more snowmelt (the ice-albedo [[feedback]]). This is the basis for predictions of enhanced warming in the polar and seasonally snow covered regions as a result of [[global warming]]. === Clouds === Clouds are another source of albedo that play into the global warming equation. Different types of clouds have different albedo values, theoretically ranging from a minimum of near 0% to a maximum in the high 70s. [[Climate model]]s have shown that if the whole Earth were to be suddenly covered by white clouds, the surface temperatures would drop to a value of about -150 °C (-240 °F). This model, though it is far from perfect, also predicts that to offset a 5 °C (9 °F) temperature change due to an increase in the magnitude of the [[greenhouse effect]], \"all\" we would need to do is increase the Earth's overall albedo by about 12% by adding more white clouds. Albedo and climate in some areas are already affected by artificial clouds, such as those created by the [[contrail]]s of heavy commercial airliner traffic. A study following the [[September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11 attacks]], after which all major airlines in the U.S. shut down for three days, showed a local 1 °C increase in the daily temperature range (the difference of day and night temperatures) (''see: [[contrail]]''). === Aerosol effects === [[Particulate|Aerosol]] (very fine particles/droplets in the atmosphere) has two effects, direct and indirect. The direct (albedo) effect is generally to cool the planet; the indirect effect (the particles act as [[CCN]]s and thereby change [[cloud properties]]) is less certain [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/231.htm#671]. === Black carbon === Another albedo-related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles. The size of this effect is difficult to quantify: the [[IPCC]] say that their \"estimate of the global mean radiative forcing for BC aerosols from fossil fuels is ... +0.2 W m-2 (from +0.1 W m-2 in the [[SAR_(IPCC)|SAR)]]) with a range +0.1 to +0.4 W m-2\". [http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/233.htm]. [[Category:Electromagnetic radiation]] [[Category:Climatology]] [[Category:Climate forcing]] [[Category:Astrophysics]] [[als:Albedo]] [[bg:Албедо]] [[bs:Albedo]] [[ca:Albedo]] [[cs:Albedo]] [[da:Albedo]] [[de:Albedo]] [[et:Albeedo]] [[es:Albedo]] [[eo:Albedo]] [[fr:Albédo]] [[gl:Albedo]] [[ko:반사율]] [[hr:Albedo]] [[it:Albedo]] [[he:אלבדו]] [[nl:Weerkaatsingsvermogen]] [[ja:アルベド]] [[no:Albedo]] [[nn:Albedo]] [[pl:Albedo]] [[pt:Albedo]] [[ru:Альбедо]] [[sk:Albedo]] [[sr:Албедо]] [[fi:Albedo]] [[sv:Albedo]] [[uk:Альбедо]]utf-8 J-QC#REDIRECT [[Constructed language]]utf-8/UC#REDIRECT [[Afro-Asiatic languages]]utf-8C{{otheruses}} The '''albedo''' is a measure of [[reflectivity]] of a surface or body. It is the ratio of [[electromagnetic radiation]] (EM radiation) reflected to the amount incident upon it. The fraction, usually expressed as a percentage from 0% to 100%, is an important concept in [[climatology]] and [[astronomy]]. This ratio depends on the [[frequency]] of the radiation considered: unqualified, it refers to an average across the spectrum of [[visible light]]. It also depends on the [[angle of incidence]] of the radiation: unqualified, normal incidence. Fresh snow albedos are high: up to 90%. The ocean surface has a low albedo. [[Earth]] has an average albedo of 39% w Hotel Front|right|300px]] [[Image:Emirates_Palace_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi_side.jpg|thumb|Emirates Palace Hotel from the side|right|300px]] '''Abu Dhabi''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: أبو ظبي ''ʼAbū Ẓaby'') is the largest of the seven [[emirate]]s that comprise the [[United Arab Emirates]] and was also the largest of the former [[Trucial States]]. '''Abu Dhabi''' is also a city of the same name within the Emirate that is the [[capital city|capital]] of the country, in north central UAE. The city lies on a T-shaped island jutting into the [[Persian Gulf]] from the central western coast. An estimated 1,000,000 lived there in 2000, with about an 80% [[expatriate]] population. Abu Dhabi city is located at {{coor d|24.4667|N|54.3667|E}}. [[Al Ain]] is Abu Dhabi's second largest urban area with a population of 348,000 ([[2003]] census estimate) and is located 150 kilometres inland. ==History== Parts of Abu Dhabi were settled as far back as the [[3rd millennium BC]] and its early history fits the nomadic, herding and fishing pattern typical of the broader region. Modern Abu Dhabi traces its origins to the rise of an important tribal confederation the Bani Yas in the late [[18th century]], who also assumed control of [[Dubai]]. In the [[19th century]] the Dubai and Abu Dhabi branches parted ways. Into the mid-[[20th century]], the economy of Abu Dhabi continued to be sustained mainly by camel herding, production of dates and vegetables at the inland oases of [[Al Ain]] and Liwa, and fishing and pearl diving off the coast of Abu Dhabi city, which was occupied mainly during the summer months. Most dwellings in Abu Dhabi city were, at this time constructed of palm fronds (barasti), with the better-off families occupying mud huts. The growth of the cultured pearl industry in the first half of the 20th century created hardship for residents of Abu Dhabi as pearls represented the largest export and main source of cash earnings. In 1939, Sheikh [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]] granted [[Petroleum]] concessions, and oil was first found in 1958. At first, oil money had a marginal impact. A few lowrise concete buildings were erected, and the first paved road was completed in 1961, but Sheikh Shakbut, uncertain whether the new oil royalties would last, took a cautious approach, prefering to save the revenue rather than investing it in development. His brother, [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan]], saw that oil wealth had the potential to transform Abu Dhabi. The ruling Al Nahayan family decided that Sheikh Zayed should replace his brother as Ruler and carry out his vision of developing the country. On [[August 6]], [[1966]], with the assistance of the British, Sheikh Zayed became the new ruler. See generally, Al-Fahim, M, ''From Rags to Riches: A Story of Abu Dhabi'', Chapter Six (London Centre of Arab Studies, 1995), ISBN 1 900404 00 1. With the announcement by Britain in 1968 that it would withdraw from the Gulf area by 1971, Sheikh Zayed became the main driving force behind the formation of the [[United Arab Emirates]]. After the Emirates gained independence in 1971, oil wealth continued to flow to the area and traditional [[Mudbrick|mud-brick]] [[hut]]s were rapidly replaced with [[banks]], boutiques and modern [[highrise]]s. ==Current ruler== His Highness Sheikh [[Khalifa bin Zayed Al Nahayan]] is the hereditary [[Emir|emir]] and ruler of Abu Dhabi, as well as the current president of the [[United Arab Emirates]] (UAE). ==Postal History== [[Image:Stamp_Abu_1967_40f-170px.jpg|right|170px|thumb|[[Shaikh]] [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Zaid]], [[1967]]]] Now part of the [[United Arab Emirates]], '''Abu Dhabi''' was formerly the largest of the seven sheikdoms which made up the [[Trucial States]] on the so-called [[Pirate Coast]] of eastern [[Arabia]] between [[Oman]] and [[Qatar]]. The [[Trucial States]] as a whole had an area of some 32,000 square miles of which Abu Dhabi alone had 26,000. The capital was the town of Abu Dhabi which is on an offshore island and was first settled in 1761. The name [[Trucial States]] arose from [[treaties]] made with [[Great Britain]] in 1820 which ensured a condition of [[truce]] in the area and the suppression of [[piracy]] and [[slavery]]. The [[treaty]] expired on [[31 December]] [[1966]]. The decision to form the [[UAE]] was made on [[18 July]] [[1971]] and the [[federation]] was founded on [[1 August]] [[1972]], although the inaugural [[UAE]] stamps were not issued until [[1 January]] [[1973]]. [[petroleum|Oil]] production began on [[Das Island]] after [[prospecting]] during 1956-1960. [[Das Island]] is part of Abu Dhabi but lies well [[offshore]], about 100 miles north of the mainland. [[petroleum|Oil]] production on the [[mainland]] began in 1962. As a major [[petroleum|oil]] producer, Abu Dhabi soon acquired massive [[financial]] wealth. [[Investment]] in long-term [[construction]] projects and the establishment of a [[finance]] sector has led to the area becoming a centre of [[commerce]] which may well secure its lasting importance when the [[petroleum|oil]] resources are exhausted. In December 1960, [[postage stamps]] of [[Compendium of postage stamp issuers (Brit - British)#British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia|British Postal Agencies in Eastern Arabia]] were supplied to the [[construction]] workers on [[Das Island]] but the [[postal service]] was administered via the agency office in [[Bahrain]]. The [[mail]] was also [[postmark]]ed [[Bahrain]] so there was no clear indication that a [[letter]] had come from [[Das Island]]. On [[30 March]] [[1963]], a British agency was opened in Abu Dhabi and issued the agency stamps after the sheik objected to the use of the [[Trucial States]] [[definitive]]s. [[Mail]] from [[Das Island]] continued to be administered by [[Bahrain]] but was now cancelled by an Abu Dhabi [[Trucial States]] [[postmark]]. The first Abu Dhabi stamps were a [[definitive series]] of [[30 March]] [[1964]] depicting [[Shaikh]] [[Shakhbut Bin-Sultan Al Nahyan]]. There were eleven values under the [[India|Indian]] [[currency]] that was used of 100 [[paisa|naye paise]] = 1 [[rupee]]. The range of values was 5 np to 10 [[rupee]]s. Despite the introduction of these [[definitive]]s, the British agency stamps remained valid in both Abu Dhabi and [[Das Island]] until the end of 1966 when they were withdrawn. A [[post office]] was opened on [[Das Island]] on [[6 January]] [[1966]] and this ended the [[Bahrain]] service. [[Mail]] from [[Das Island]] was now handled within Abu Dhabi. When the [[treaty]] with [[Great Britain]] expired at the end of 1966, Abu Dhabi introduced a new [[currency]] of 1000 [[fils]] = 1 [[dinar]] and took over its own postal administration, including the [[Das Island]] office. The earlier issues were subject to [[surcharge]]s in this [[currency]] and replacement [[definitive]]s were released depicting the new ruler [[Shaikh]] [[Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahayan|Zaid]]. Issues continued until introduction of [[UAE]] stamps in 1973. In all, Abu Dhabi issued 95 stamps from 1964 to 1972, the final set being three views of the [[Dome of the Rock]] in [[Jerusalem]]. '''Source''': [http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html Encyclopaedia of Postal History] ==Climate== Sunny/blue skies can be expected through-out the year. The months [[June]] through [[September]] are generally hot and humid with temperatures averaging above 40ºC(110ºF). The weather is usually pleasant from [[October]] to [[May]]. January to February is cooler and may require the use of a light jacket. The oasis city of [[Al Ain]] enjoys cooler temperatures even through summer due to [[sporadic]] rainfall. ==Transport== [[Abu Dhabi International Airport]] serves this city. The local time is [[GMT]] + 4 hours. ==Trivia== * The cartoon cat [[Garfield]] would often put the kitten Nermal, in a box and ship him to Abu Dhabi. A common phrase from Garfield: \"Abu Dhabi is where all the cute kittens go\". The reason is that the author of Garfield found out through over-seas relations that the city of Abu Dhabi, and the majority of UAE has a large amount of cats that roam wild. Many live around the suburbs. ==See also== *[[Mina' Zayid]], the port of Abu Dhabi. *[[Al Ain]] *[[Marawah]] *[[Postal Authorities]] ==External links== {{commons|Abu Dhabi}} * [http://www.jl.sl.btinternet.co.uk/stampsite/alpha/a/abudhabi.html Encyclopaedia of Postal History] * [http://www.thepersiangulf.org/cities/abudhabi.html Abu Dhabi, The Persian Gulf] * [http://www.abudhabi.com/ abudhabi.com] * [http://www.adcci-uae.com/ Abu Dhabi Chamber of Commerce and Industry] * [http://www.adnoc.com/ Abu Dhabi National Oil Company] * [http://www.spe.org/society/abudhabi/AbuDhabi-info.htm SPE history, with oil details] * [http://www.angelfire.com/ok/ABUDHABISTAMPS/ Abu Dhabi postal history] * [http://www.adias-uae.com ADIAS], Abu Dhabi Islands Archaeological Survey * [http://www.alloexpat.com/abu_dhabi_expat_forum/ Expatriates Forums in Abu Dhabi] * [http://www.timeoutabudhabi.com/ Time Out Abu Dhabi], Guide to life in Abu Dhabi *[http://www.careeruae.net/ Career UAE - Useful web site for the job seekers in Abu dabi/United Arab Emirates] ===Non-Government Organisations=== * [http://www.ansarburney.org/ Ansar Burney Trust] - human rights and anti-slavery organisation {{UAE}} [[Category:Capitals in Asia]] [[Category:Cities in the United Arab Emirates]] [[Category:Emirates]] [[Category:Coastal cities]] [[Category:Philately by country]] [[ar:أبوظبي]] [[bg:Абу Даби]] [[bs:Abu Dhabi]] [[ca:Abu Dhabi]] [[da:Abu Dhabi]] [[de:Abu Dhabi]] [[et:Abu Dhabi emiraat]] [[es:Abu Dhabi]] [[eo:Abu-Dabio]] [[fr:Abu Dhabi]] [[gl:Emirato de Abu Dabi]] [[ko:아부다비]] [[io:Abu Dhabi]] [[id:Abu Dhabi]] [[is:Abú Dabí]] [[it:Abu Dhabi]] [[he:אבו דאבי]] [[lt:Abu Dabis]] [[nl:Abu Dhabi]] [[ja:アブダビ]] [[no:Abu Dhabi]] [[nn:Abu Dhabi]] [[pl:Abu Zabi]] [[pt:Abu Dhabi]] [[ru:Абу-Даби]] [[simple:Abu Dhabi]] [[sk:Abú Zabí (mesto)]] [[fi:Abu Dhabi]] [[sv:Abu Dhabi]] [[uk:Абу-Дабі]] [[zh:阿布扎比]]utf-8 <lK'tEo<10YD#REDIRECT [[Things in Atlas Shrugged]]utf-81/YD#REDIRECT [[Places in Atlas Shrugged]]utf-84._D #REDIRECT [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]]utf-84-_D #REDIRECT [[Companies in Atlas Shrugged]]utf-85,aD #REDIRECT [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged]]utf-8-+QD #REDIRECT [[Constructed language]]utf-8!*9D #REDIRECT [[Achilles]]utf-8')ED#REDIRECT [[Atlas Shrugged]]utf-8%(AD#REDIRECT [[Abbreviation]]utf-8'3D#REDIRECT [[Abbot]]utf-8&3D#REDIRECT [[Abbey]]utf-8"%;D#REDIRECT [[Abbeville]]utf-8$5D#REDIRECT [[Abbess]]utf-8 #7D#REDIRECT [[Abbadid]]utf-8 "7D#REDIRECT [[Abalone]]utf-8!5D#REDIRECT [[Abacus]]utf-8! 9C#REDIRECT [[Aardvark]]utf-8]-C[[Image:Abu Dhabi from Space-ISS006-E-32079-March 2003.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Satellite image of Abu Dhabi (March 2003)]] [[Image:AbuDhabi02.JPG|thumb|View of Abu Dhabi|right|300px]] [[Image:Emirates_Palace_Hotel_Abu_Dhabi_front.jpg|thumb|Emirates Palace 8`:yO,[9c8)HID'#REDIRECT [[Academic elitism]]utf-8(GGD&#REDIRECT [[Austrian German]]utf-87FeD%#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]utf-8&ECD$#REDIRECT [[Academy Award]]utf-8%DAD##REDIRECT [[Andre Agassi]]utf-8"C;D"#REDIRECT [[ASCII art]]utf-8 B7D!#REDIRECT [[Anarchy]]utf-8"A;D #REDIRECT [[knowledge]]utf-8)@ID#REDIRECT [[Existence of God]]utf-8&?CD#redirect [[Argument form]]utf-8*>KD#REDIRECT [[Anchorage, Alaska]]utf-8,=OD#REDIRECT [[Alexander the Great]]utf-8!<9D#REDIRECT [[Ayn Rand]]utf-8(;GD#REDIRECT [[Arthur Koestler]]utf-8:5D#REDIRECT [[Abadan]]utf-8!99D#REDIRECT [[Aardwolf]]utf-8/8UD#REDIRECT [[Aberdeen, South Dakota]]utf-8"7;D#REDIRECT [[Abensberg]]utf-8&6CD#REDIRECT [[Cain and Abel]]utf-8$5?D#REDIRECT [[Abecedarian]]utf-8*4KD#REDIRECT [[Abdominal surgery]]utf-8 37D#REDIRECT [[Abdomen]]utf-8%2AD#REDIRECT [[Adolf Hitler]]utf-8)1ID#REDIRECT [[African-American]]utf-8 2sI'm? V2"Z;D9#REDIRECT [[Anarchism]]utf-84Y_D8#REDIRECT [[List of female movie actors]]utf-8+XMD7#REDIRECT [[anarcho-capitalism]]utf-8+WMD6#REDIRECT [[Anarcho-capitalism]]utf-8!V5D5{{AZ|uc=A|lc=a}} {{wiktionarypar2|A|a}} The letter '''A''' is the first letter in the [[Latin alphabet]]. Its name in [[English language|English]] is ''a'', plural ''aes,'' ''a's,'' or ''as''. 4U_D4#REDIRECT [[List of female movie actors]]utf-8T3D3#REDIRECT [[Actor]]utf-81SYD2#REDIRECT [[Austro-Asiatic languages]]utf-8,ROD1#REDIRECT [[Talk:Anarchy (word)]]utf-8+QMD0#REDIRECT [[Economy of Andorra]]utf-8,POD/#REDIRECT [[Politics of Andorra]]utf-80OWD.#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Andorra]]utf-8+NMD-#REDIRECT [[History of Andorra]]utf-8 M7D,#REDIRECT [[Andorra]]utf-8(LGD+#REDIRECT [[Anna Kournikova]]utf-85KaD*#REDIRECT [[America]] {{R from CamelCase}}utf-8*JKD)#REDIRECT [[American football]]utf-8(IGD(#REDIRECT [[Axiom of choice]]utf-8 ==History== The letter A probably started as a [[pictogram]] of an [[ox]] head in [[Egyptian hieroglyph]]s or the [[Proto-semitic alphabet]]. {| align=\"center\" cellspacing=\"10\" |- align=\"center\" |[[Image:EgyptianA-01.png|Egyptian hieroglyphic ox head]]
Egyptian hieroglyph
ox head |[[Image:Proto-semiticA-01.png|Proto-semitic ox head]]
Proto-semitic
ox head |[[Image:PhoenicianA-01.png|Phoenician aleph]]
Phoenician ''aleph'' |[[Image:GreekA-01.png|Greek alpha]]
Greek ''alpha'' |[[Image:EtruscanA-01.png|Etruscan A]]
Etruscan A |[[Image:RomanA-01.png|Roman A]]
Roman A |} By [[1600 BC]], the [[Phoenician alphabet]]'s letter had a linear form that served as the basis for all later forms. Its name must have corresponded closely to the [[Hebrew alphabet|Hebrew]] [[Aleph (letter)|aleph]]. The name is also similar to the Arabic [[Alif|alif.]] When the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]] adopted the alphabet, they had no use for the [[glottal stop]] that the letter had denoted in Phoenician and other [[Semitic languages]], so they used the sign for the vowel {{IPA|/ɑ/}}, and changed its name to [[alpha (letter)|alpha]]. In the earliest Greek inscriptions, dating to the [[8th century BC]], the letter rests upon its side, but in the [[Greek alphabet]] of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter, although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg, or by the angle at which the cross line is set. The [[Etruscans]] brought the Greek alphabet to what was [[Italy]] and left the letter unchanged. The Romans later adopted the [[Old Italic alphabet|Etruscan alphabet]] to write [[Latin]], and the resulting letter was preserved in the modern [[Latin alphabet]] used to write many languages, including [[English language|English]]. The letter has two [[minuscule]] (lower-case) forms. The form used in most current handwriting consists of a circle and vertical stroke. Most printed material uses a form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it. Both derive from the majuscule (capital) form. In Greek handwriting, it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop, as demonstrated by the Uncial version below. Many fonts then made the right leg vertical. In some of these, the [[serif]] that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc, resulting in the printed form, while in others it was dropped, resulting in the modern handwritten form. {| align=\"center\" cellspacing=\"10\" |- align=\"center\" |[[Image:BlackletterA-01.png|Blackletter A]]
[[Blackletter]] A |[[Image:UncialA-01.png|Uncial A]]
[[Uncial]] A |[[Image:Acap.png|Another Capital A]] |- align=\"center\" |[[Image:ModernRomanA-01.png|Modern Roman A]]
Modern Roman A |[[Image:ModernItalicA-01.png|Modern Italic A]]
Modern Italic A |[[Image:ModernScriptA-01.png|Modern Script A]]
Modern Script A |} ==Usage== In [[English language|English]], the letter A by itself usually denotes the [[lax open front unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|æ}}) as in ''pad'', the [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|ɑ}}) as in ''father'', or, in concert with a later orthographic [[e]], the diphthong {{IPA2|eʲ}} (though the pronunciation varies with the dialect) as in ''ace'', due to effects of the [[Great vowel shift]]. In most other languages that use the Latin alphabet, the letter A denotes either an [[open back unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|ɑ}}), or an [[open central unrounded vowel]] ({{IPA2|a}}). In the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]], variants of the letter A denote various [[vowel]]s. In [[X-SAMPA]], capital A denotes the [[open back unrounded vowel]] and lowercase a denotes the [[open front unrounded vowel]]. A also is the English [[indefinite article]], extended to [[an]] before a vowel. ==Codes for computing== {{Letter |NATO=Alpha |Morse=·– |B1=● |B2=○ |B3=○ |B4=○ |B5=○ |B6=○ }} In [[Unicode]] the [[majuscule|capital]] A is codepoint U+0041 and the [[minuscule|lowercase]] a is U+0061. In [[Hexadecimal|Hex]], A is the character used to represent decimal 10, or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]], 01010 The [[ASCII]] code for capital A is 65 and for lowercase a is 97; or in [[Binary numeral system|binary]] 01000001 and 01100001, correspondingly. The [[EBCDIC]] code for capital A is 193 and for lowercase a is 129. The [[numeric character reference]]s in [[HTML]] and [[XML]] are \"&#65;\" and \"&#97;\" for upper and lower case respectively. ==Meanings for '''A'''== * As a word; see [[A, an]] *In [[medicine]], '''A''' (also, '''A+''' or '''A-''') is one of the human [[blood type]]s. * In [[biochemistry]], A is the symbol for [[alanine]] and [[adenosine]]. * Brassiere [[cup size]] '''A''' * In [[calendar]]s, A is often an abbreviation for the [[month]]s [[April]] and [[August]]. * In [[computing]], ** <a> is the [[HTML element#links and anchors|HTML element for an anchor tag]]. ** In Windows, Ctrl-A, and Mac OS, Command-A, selects all the text in the document, or all the pixels of an image. ** A sometimes represents the set of all alphabetic characters within [[character string (computer science)|string]] patterns. ** A:\\ is the conventional address of the first floppy disk drive in [[CP/M]]-based [[operating system]]s such as [[DOS]]. ** A is a security division (\"Verified Protection\") in the [[TCSEC]]. * In [[education]], a [[Grade (education)|grade]] of '''A''' typically represents the highest score that students can achieve. This is sometimes coupled with a [[plus]]/[[minus]] sign, as in '''A+''' or '''A-''', or a number, as in '''A1'''. * In [[electronics]], ** [[A battery|A]] is a standard size of [[battery (electricity)|battery]]. ** A refers to the Anode, or filament, component of a [[vacuum tube]]. * In [[English language|English]], the word \"a\" is an indefinite [[article (grammar)|article]], see [[A, an]] * In [[Esperanto#Grammar|Esperanto]], -a is the adjectival/attributive ending; A is commonly an abbreviation meaning English (language). * In [[film]], ''A'' is an Italian film made in [[1969]]; see ''[[A (film)]]''. * In [[finance]], A is the U.S. [[ticker symbol]] for [[Agilent Technologies]]. * In [[Greek language|Greek]], a- is a [[prefix]] (''alpha privativum'') meaning \"not\" or \"devoid of\", used in many borrowed words in [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]] and [[Romance languages]]. * In [[India]] ''A'' is movie rating, given to those intended to be seen only by adults. * In [[List of international license plate codes|international licence plate codes]], A stands for [[Austria]]. * In [[paper size|international paper sizes]], A is a series of sizes with an [[Paper size|aspect ratio]] of roughly 70% width to height, with A4 being an example popular size. * In [[logic]], **the letter A is used as a symbol for the universal affirmative proposition in the general form \"all x is y\". The letters I, E and O are used respectively for the particular affirmative \"some x is y\", the universal negative \"no x is y\", and the particular negative \"some x is not y\". The use of these letters is generally derived from the vowels of the two [[Latin]] [[verb]]s ''affirmo'' (or AIo), \"I assert\", and ''nego'', \"I deny\". The use of the symbols dates from the [[13th century]], though some authorities trace their origin to the Greek logicians. **In [[symbolic logic]], the symbol ∀ (an inverted letter A) is the [[universal quantifier]]. * In [[poetry]], [[A (poem)|A]] is the major work of influential 20th century author [[Louis Zukofsky]]. * In [[mathematics]], **A is often used as a [[numerical digit|digit]] meaning ''[[10 (number)|ten]]'' in [[hexadecimal]] and other positional [[numeral system]]s with a [[radix]] of 11 or greater, **[[blackboard bold]] \\mathbb{A} (𝔄 in [[Unicode]]) sometimes represents the [[algebraic numbers]]. **In the [[On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences]], each sequence has an ID consisting of the letter A and six base 10 digits. * In the [[SI]] system of units, ** A is the symbol for the [[ampere]] or amp, the [[SI base unit]] of [[electric current]]. ** a, [[atto]], is the [[SI prefix]] meaning 10-18 ** a is the symbol for the [[are]], a unit of surface area equal to 100 [[square metre]]s. * In [[music]], ** A is a [[Pitch class]] or [[note]], see [[A (musical note)]]. ** A, or \"side A\", refers to the top or first side of a [[vinyl record]]. ** ''A'' is a [[British rock]] band; see ''[[A (band)]]''. ** ''A'' is an album by [[Jethro Tull (band)|Jethro Tull]]; see ''[[A (album)]]''. * In [[nutrition]], A is a [[vitamin]]. * In a deck of [[playing card]]s, the letter A is used to mark each of the [[Ace]]s. * In [[photography]], most SLR cameras use A to signify aperture priority mode, where the user sets the aperture and the camera determines the shutter speed. * In [[political science|political theory]], a circumscribed \"A\" is an [[anarchist symbolism|anarchist symbol]]. * As the first letter of a [[postal code]], ** In [[Canada]], A stands for [[Newfoundland and Labrador]]. * In [[United States|American]] [[Major League Baseball]], the [[Oakland Athletics]] are often simply referred to as the \"'''A's'''\". * As a [[timezone]], A is the military designation for [[UTC|Coordinated Universal Time]]+1, also known as CET or [[Central European Time]]. ==See also== {{Wikisource1911Enc|A}} {{Commons|A}} [[Alpha (letter)|Alpha]], [[A (Cyrillic)|Cyrillic A]], [[ª]], [[À]], [[Á]], [[Â]], [[Ã]], [[Ä]] (Ae), [[Å]] (Aa), [[Æ]], [[A-breve|Ă]] [[A-ogonek|Ą]]
{{AZsubnav}} [[Category:Latin letters]] [[Category:Vowels]] [[als:A]] [[ar:A]] [[bs:A]] [[ca:A]] [[cs:A]] [[da:A]] [[de:A]] [[el:A]] [[eo:A]] [[es:A]] [[et:A]] [[fi:A]] [[fr:A]] [[gl:A]] [[he:A]] [[hr:A]] [[hu:A]] [[id:A]] [[io:A]] [[it:A]] [[ja:A]] [[ko:A]] [[kw:A]] [[la:A]] [[nl:A]] [[nn:A]] [[no:A]] [[pl:A]] [[pt:A]] [[ro:A]] [[ru:А (буква)]] [[scn:A]] [[simple:A]] [[sl:A]] [[sq:A]] [[sr:A (латиничко)]] [[sv:A]] [[tl:A]] [[uk:А]] [[vi:A]] [[yo:A]] [[zh:A]]utf-8 KZxK+bMDA#REDIRECT [[Applied statistics]]utf-8~aoD@:''For other uses, see [[Achilles (disambiguation)]].'' [[Image:The_wrath_of_Achilles.jpg|220px|thumb|right|The wrath of Achilles, by Léon Benouville]]{{Greek myth}}In [[Greek mythology]], '''{{polytonic|Ἀχιλλεύς}}''', transliterated to '''Akhilleus''' or '''Achilleus''' in Roman letters, Latinized from this ancient Greek to '''Achilles''', appearing in Etruscan as '''Achle''', was a [[hero]] (ancient Greek heros, \"defender\") of the [[Trojan War]], the greatest and the most [[central character]] of [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]''. ==Name== The very first two `5D?#REDIRECT [[Africa]]utf-8p_SD>{{Otheruses1|the U.S. State}}
{{US state | Name = Alabama | Fullname = State of Alabama | Flag = Flag of Alabama.svg | Flaglink = [[Flag of Alabama]] | Seal = Alabama state seal.png| Map = Map_of_USA_highlighting_Alabama.png | Nickname = Camellia State, The Heart of Dixie[[#Notes|¹]], Yellowhammer State| Capital = [[Montgomery, Alabama|Montgomery]] | OfficialLang = [[English language|English]] | Languages = [[English language|English]] 96.7%, [[Spanish language|Spanish]] 2.2% | LargestCity = [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]] | Governor = [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] (R)| Senators = [[Richard Shelby]] (R) [[Jeff Sessions]] (R) | PostalAbbreviation = AL | AreaRank = 30th | TotalArea = 52,423 mi²/135,775 | LandArea = 50,750 mi²/131,442 | WaterArea = 1,673 mi²/4,333 | PCWater = 3.19 | PopRank = 23rd | 2000Pop = 4,447,100 | DensityRank = 26th | 2000Density = 33.84 | AdmittanceOrder = 22nd | AdmittanceDate = [[December 14]], [[1819]] | TimeZone = [[Central Standard Time Zone|Central]]: [[UTC]]-6/[[Daylight saving time|DST]]-5 | Latitude = 30°13'N to 35°N | Longitude = 84°51'W to 88°28'W | Width = 190 mi/306 | Length = 330 mi/531 | HighestElev = [[Mount Cheaha]] 2,408 ft/734 | MeanElev = 499 ft/152 | LowestElev = 0 ft/0 | ISOCode = US-AL | Website = www.alabama.gov }} [[Image:AlaUrb.gif|right|Alabama Cities and Urban Areas/Sprawl]] {| cellpadding=\"2\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"float:right; clear:right; width:300px; margin:0 0 1em 1em;\" class=\"toccolours\" |'''[[List of U.S. state mottos|State motto]]'''||''[[Audemus jura nostra defendere]]'' |- |'''[[List of U.S. state birds|State bird]]'''||[[Northern Flicker|Yellowhammer]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state flowers|State flower]]'''||[[Camellia]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state songs|State song]]'''||\"[[Alabama (song)|Alabama]]\" |- |'''[[List of U.S. state trees|State tree]]'''||[[Longleaf Pine]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state spirits|State spirit]]'''||[[Conecuh Ridge Whiskey|Conecuh Ridge]] |- |'''[[List of U.S. state reptiles|State reptile]]'''||[[Red-bellied turtle]] |}
'''Alabama''' is a [[U.S. state|state]] located in the [[Southern United States|Southern]] [[United States]]. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Alabama]]'' The memory of the [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] presence is particularly strong in Alabama. Among [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] people once living in present Alabama were [[Alabama (people)|Alabama]] (Alibamu), [[Cherokee]], [[Chickasaw]], [[Choctaw]], [[Creek people|Creek]], [[Koasati]], and [[Mobile (people)|Mobile]]. Trade with the Northeast via the [[Ohio River]] began during the Burial Mound Period ([[1000 BC]]-A.D. [[700]]) and continued until European contact. Meso-American influence is evident in the agrarian Mississippian culture that followed. The [[France|French]] established the first [[Europe]]an settlement in the state with the establishment of [[Mobile, Alabama|Mobile]] in [[1702]]. Southern Alabama was French from [[1702]]–[[1763]], part of British West Florida from [[1763]]–[[1780]], and part of Spanish West Florida from [[1780]]–[[1814]]. Northern and central Alabama was part of British Georgia from [[1763]]–[[1783]] and part of the American Mississippi territory thereafter. Its statehood delayed by the lack of a coastline (rectified when Andrew Jackson captured Spanish Mobile in [[1814]]), Alabama became the 22nd state in [[1819]]. The state of Alabama seceded from the Union on [[January 11]], [[1861]] and became the [[Alabama Republic]] and on [[February 18]] [[1861]] became a [[Confederate States of America|Confederate state]]. While not many battles were fought in the state, it contributed about 120,000 soldiers to the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]]. After the war a provisional government was set up in [[1865]] and Alabama was officially readmitted to the Union on July 14 [[1868]]. The cradle of the Confederacy during the [[United States Civil War|Civil War]], Alabama was at stage center in the [[American Civil Rights Movement (1955-1968)|civil rights movement]] of the [[1950s]] and [[1960s]]. ==Law and government== ''Main article: [[Law and Government of Alabama]]'' ===Local & County Government=== Alabama has 67 [[county|counties]], each having its own elected legislative branch, usually called the Board of Commissioners, which usually also has executive authority in the county. Due to the restraints placed in the [[Alabama Constitution]], all but 7 counties (Jefferson, Lee, Mobile, Madison, Montgomery, Shelby, and Tuscaloosa) in the state have little to no [[home rule]]. Instead, most counties in the state have to lobby to the Local Legislation Committee the state legislature to get simple local policies such as waste disposal to land use zoning. ===Political Climate=== The current governor of the state is [[Bob Riley (Alabama)|Bob Riley]] and the two U.S. senators are [[Jeff Sessions|Jefferson B. Sessions III]] and [[Richard Shelby|Richard C. Shelby]] (all three from the [[United States Republican Party|Republican Party]]). The current [[Alabama Constitution]] was adopted in [[1901]]. During [[Reconstruction]] following the [[American Civil War]], Alabama was occupied by federal troops of the [[Third Military District]] under [[John Pope (military officer)|General John Pope]]. In [[1877]], the Reconstruction period ended with the recognition of [[Rutherford B. Hayes]] as President-elect. [[White people|White]] Southerners assumed control of the government and passed laws to [[racial segregation|segregate]] and disenfranchise black residents. The state became part of the \"[[Solid South]],\" a one-party system in which the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]] became essentially the only political party in every Southern state. For nearly 100 years, local and state elections in Alabama were decided in the Democratic Party primary, with generally no Republican challenger running. From [[1876]] through [[1956]], Alabama supported only Democratic presidential candidates, by margins as high as 73 percentage points. In [[1960]], Alabama gave most of its electoral votes to racist candidate [[Harry F. Byrd]]. In [[1964]], the national [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]] began to win more votes in the South by following a \"[[Southern Strategy]]\" which emphasized \"[[States' rights|states' rights]]\" and the increasing liberalism of the national Democratic Party. The first such candidate was conservative [[Barry Goldwater]], who became the first Republican candidate supported by Alabama. In [[1968]], Alabama supported native son and [[American Independent Party]] (Segregationist) candidate [[George Wallace]]. The last Democratic candidate to win Alabama's votes in a presidential election was Southerner [[Jimmy Carter]] in [[1976]]. Today, the Republican party has become increasingly dominant in conservative Alabama politics. However, in local politics, Democrats still control many offices, including majorities in both houses of the Legislature, and registered Democrats outnumber Republicans in the state. In 2004, [[George W. Bush]] won Alabama's nine electoral votes by a margin of 25 percentage points with 62.5% of the vote. The only 11 counties voting Democratic were [[Black Belt (region of Alabama)|Black Belt]] counties, where [[African American]]s are in the majority. *[[U.S. presidential election, 2004, in Alabama]] ==Geography== ''Main article: [[Geography of Alabama]]'' [[Image:National-atlas-alabama.PNG|left|thumb|Map of Alabama]] Alabama is the 30th largest state in the United States with 135,775 km2 (52,423 mi2) of total area. 3.19% of that is water, making Alabama 23rd in the amount of surface water, also giving it the second largest inland waterway system in the [[United States]]. About three-fifths of the land area is a gentle [[plain]] with a general incline towards the [[Mississippi River]] and the [[Gulf of Mexico]]. The [[North Alabama]] region is mostly mountainous, with the [[Tennessee River]] cutting a large valley creating numerous creeks, streams, rivers, mountains, and lakes. The lowest point east of the [[Mississippi River]] lies in [[Dekalb County]] along a creek cutting tower ridges, and creating [[Buck's Pocket State Park]]. Another natural wonder is \"Land Bridge\" the longest natural bridge span east of the [[Mississippi River]]. Alabama generally ranges in [[elevation]] from [[sea level]] at [[Mobile Bay]], to a little more than 1800 [[foot (unit)|feet]] or 550 [[metre|meters]] in the Appalachian mountains in the northeast. The highest point is [[Mount Cheaha]]. ==Economy== According to the [[Bureau of Economic Analysis]], the [[2003]] total [[gross state product]] was $132 billion. The [[per capita income]] for the state was $26,505 in 2003. Alabama's [[agricultural]] outputs include [[poultry]] and [[Egg (food)|eggs]], [[cattle]], plant nursery items, [[peanut]]s, [[cotton]], [[grains]] such as [[maize|corn]] and [[sorgum]], [[vegetables]], [[milk]], [[soybeans]], and [[peaches]]. Even though neighboring [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] is called the [[Peach State]], Alabama produces twice as many peaches annually. Its [[Industry|industrial]] outputs include [[iron]] and [[steel]] products, including cast-iron and steel pipe, [[paper]], [[lumber]], and [[wood]] products, [[mining]] (mostly coal), and [[plastic]] products, cars and trucks, and [[apparel]]. Also, Alabama produces [[aerospace]] and [[electronic]] products, mostly in the [[Huntsville]] area, home of the [[NASA]] [[George C. Marshall Space Flight Center]] and the [[US Army Missile Command]], headquartered at [[Redstone Arsenal]]. Also, the city of [[Mobile]] is a busy seaport on the [[Gulf of Mexico]], and with inland waterway access to the Midwest via the [[Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway]]. ==Demographics== {{seesubarticle|Demographics of Alabama}} {| class=\"toccolours\" align=\"right\" cellpadding=\"4\" cellspacing=\"0\" style=\"margin:0 0 1em 1em; font-size: 95%;\" |- ! colspan=2 bgcolor=\"#ccccff\" align=\"center\"| Historical populations |- ! align=\"center\"| Census
year !! align=\"right\"| Population |- | colspan=2|
|- | align=\"center\"| 1800 || align=\"right\"| 1,250 |- | align=\"center\"| 1810 || align=\"right\"| 9,046 |- | align=\"center\"| 1820 || align=\"right\"| 127,901 |- | align=\"center\"| 1830 || align=\"right\"| 309,527 |- | align=\"center\"| 1840 || align=\"right\"| 590,756 |- | align=\"center\"| 1850 || align=\"right\"| 771,623 |- | align=\"center\"| 1860 || align=\"right\"| 964,201 |- | align=\"center\"| 1870 || align=\"right\"| 996,992 |- | align=\"center\"| 1880 || align=\"right\"| 1,262,505 |- | align=\"center\"| 1890 || align=\"right\"| 1,513,401 |- | align=\"center\"| 1900 || align=\"right\"| 1,828,697 |- | align=\"center\"| 1910 || align=\"right\"| 2,138,093 |- | align=\"center\"| 1920 || align=\"right\"| 2,348,174 |- | align=\"center\"| 1930 || align=\"right\"| 2,646,248 |- | align=\"center\"| 1940 || align=\"right\"| 2,832,961 |- | align=\"center\"| 1950 || align=\"right\"| 3,061,743 |- | align=\"center\"| 1960 || align=\"right\"| 3,266,740 |- | align=\"center\"| 1970 || align=\"right\"| 3,444,165 |- | align=\"center\"| 1980 || align=\"right\"| 3,893,888 |- | align=\"center\"| 1990 || align=\"right\"| 4,040,587 |- | align=\"center\"| [[United States 2000 Census|2000]] || align=\"right\"| 4,447,100 |} As of 2005, Alabama has an estimated population of 4,557,808, which is an increase of 32,433, or 0.7%, from the prior year and an increase of 110,457, or 2.5%, since the year 2000. This includes a natural increase since the last census of 77,418 people (that is 319,544 births minus 242,126 deaths) and an increase due to net migration of 36,457 people into the state. Immigration from outside the United States resulted in a net increase of 25,936 people, and migration within the country produced a net increase of 10,521 people. The state had 108,000 foreign-born (2.4% of the state population), of which an estimated 22.2% were illegal aliens (24,000). ===Race and ancestry=== The racial makeup of the state and comparison to the prior census: {{Racial_demographics_begin | year1=2000 | year2=1990 }} {{Racial_demographics_White | year1=71.1% | year2=73.6% }} {{Racial_demographics_Black | year1=26.0% | year2=25.3% }} {{Racial_demographics_Asian | year1=0.7% | year2=0.5% }} {{Racial_demographics_Amerindian | year1=0.5% | year2=0.4% }} {{Racial_demographics_Other | race=Other race | year1=0.7% | year2=0.1% }} {{Racial_demographics_Mixed | year1=1.0% | year2=
*
}} {{Racial_demographics_Hispanic | year1White=70.3% | year2White=73.3% | year1Hispanic=1.7% | year2Hispanic=0.6% }} {{Racial_demographics_end}} The largest reported ancestry groups in Alabama: American (17.0%), [[British American|English]] (7.8%), [[Irish American|Irish]] (7.7%), [[German American|German]] (5.7%), and [[Scots-Irish American|Scotch-Irish]] (2.0%). 'American' includes those reported as Native American or [[African American]]. ===Religion=== The major religions of Alabama: *Christian – 92% **Protestant – 79% ***Baptist – 49% ***Methodist – 10% ***Presbyterian – 3% ***Episcopalian – 2% ***Church of God – 2% ***Church of Christ – 2% ***Pentecostal – 2% ***Lutheran – 2% ***Other Protestant – 7% **Catholic – 13% *Other religions – 1% *Non-religious – 7% ==Colleges and Universities (incomplete)== {{main|List of colleges and universities in Alabama}} {| |- | valign=\"top\" | *[http://www.au.af.mil/ Air University] *[[Alabama A&M University]] *[[Alabama State University]] *[[Andrew Jackson University]] *[[Athens State University]] *[[Auburn University]] *[[Auburn University Montgomery]] *[[Birmingham-Southern College]] *[[Bishop State Community College]] *[[Calhoun Community College|Calhoun Community College System]] *[[Capps College]] *[[Concordia College-Selma]] *[[Faulkner University]] *[[Heritage Christian University]] *[[Huntingdon College]] *[[Jacksonville State University]] *[[Judson College]] *[[Miles College]] *[[Oakwood College]] *[[Remington College]] *[[Samford University]] *[[Selma University]] *[[Southeastern Bible College]] *[[Southern Christian University]] | valign=\"top\" | *[[Spring Hill College]] *[[Stillman College]] *[[Talladega College]] *[[Troy University System]] (formerly \"Troy State University System\") **[[Troy University|Main Campus (Troy)]] **[[Troy University at Dothan]] **[[Troy University at Montgomery]] **[[Troy University at Phenix City]] *[[Tuskegee University]] *[[United States Sports Academy]] *[[University of Alabama System]] **[[University of Alabama|Main Campus (Tuscaloosa)]] **[[University of Alabama at Birmingham|Birmingham]] **[[University of Alabama at Huntsville|Huntsville]] *[[University of Mobile]] *[[University of Montevallo]] *[[University of North Alabama]] *[[University of South Alabama]] *[[University of West Alabama]] *[[Virginia College]] |} ==Culture and interests== *[[Famous Alabamians]] *[[Alabama Jubilee Hot Air Balloon Classic]] *[[Music of Alabama]] *[[Alabama Public Television]], state wide public TV network *[[List of television stations in Alabama]] *[[Alabama Shakespeare Festival]] *[[Spirit of America Festival]] *[[U.S. Space & Rocket Center]]/[[U.S. Space Camp]] *[[USS Alabama (BB-60)|USS Alabama]] *[[Rickwood Field]] *[[Robert Trent Jones Golf Trail]] *[[Visionland Theme Park]] *[[Old State Bank]] *[[Vulcan statue]] *[[Mobile Bay jubilee]] *[[Point Mallard Aquatic Center]] *[[Noccalula Falls Park]] ==References== * Atkins, Leah Rawls, Wayne Flynt, William Warren Rogers, and David Ward. ''[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=29166058 Alabama: The History of a Deep South State]'' (1994) * Flynt, Wayne. ''Alabama in the Twentieth Century'' (2004) * Owen Thomas M. ''History of Alabama and Dictionary of Alabama Biography'' 4 vols. 1921. * Jackson, Harvey H. ''Inside Alabama: A Personal History of My State'' (2004) * [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=52694010 Peirce, Neal R. ''The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States'' (1974)] solid reporting on politics and economics 1960-72 * Williams, Benjamin Buford. ''A Literary History of Alabama: The Nineteenth Century'' 1979. * WPA. ''Guide to Alabama'' (1939) * for a detailed bibliography see [[History of Alabama]] ==External links== {{sisterlinks|Alabama}} *[http://alabama.gov/ Alabama.gov] - Official website. *[http://www.alarc.org/ Alabama Association of Regional Councils] *[http://www.touralabama.org/ TourAlabama.org] - Alabama Department of Tourism and Travel *[http://www.archives.state.al.us/ Archives.state.al.us] - Alabama Department of Archives and History **[http://www.archives.state.al.us/aaa.html All About Alabama] at the Archives Department site *[http://alguard.state.al.us Alabama National Guard] - Alabama National Guard *[http://www.legislature.state.al.us/CodeofAlabama/1975/coatoc.htm Code of Alabama 1975] - at the Alabama Legislature site *[http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/01000.html Alabama QuickFacts] from the U.S. Census Bureau *[http://www.countymapsofalabama.com/ County Maps of Alabama] - Full color maps. List of cities, towns and county seats *[http://www.hotelmesh.com/algorythm/admin-place/alabama.php Suggested hotels in Alabama] * [http://www.southernlitreview.com/states/alabama Alabama Literature] from the Southern Literary Review ==Notes== ¹ The phrase ''The Heart of Dixie'' is required by state law to be included on standard state vehicle license plates, but has recently been reduced to a very small size and eclipsed by the phrase ''Stars Fell on Alabama''. {{Alabama}} {{United States}} [[Category:Alabama| ]] [[Category:States of the United States]] [[ang:Alabama]] [[ar:ألاباما]] [[bg:Алабама]] [[bs:Alabama]] [[ca:Alabama]] [[cs:Alabama]] [[cy:Alabama]] [[da:Alabama]] [[de:Alabama (Bundesstaat)]] [[eo:Alabamo]] [[es:Alabama]] [[et:Alabama]] [[fi:Alabama]] [[fr:Alabama]] [[ga:Alabama]] [[gd:Alabama]] [[gl:Alabama]] [[he:אלבמה]] [[hr:Alabama]] [[hu:Alabama]] [[id:Alabama]] [[io:Alabama]] [[is:Alabama]] [[it:Alabama]] [[ja:アラバマ州]] [[jbo:alybamys]] [[ka:ალაბამა (შტატი)]] [[ko:앨라배마 주]] [[la:Alabama]] [[lb:Alabama]] [[lt:Alabama]] [[lv:Alabama]] [[mk:Алабама]] [[mo:Алабама]] [[ms:Alabama]] [[nl:Alabama]] [[nn:Alabama]] [[no:Alabama]] [[os:Алабамæ (штат)]] [[pl:Alabama]] [[pt:Alabama]] [[ro:Alabama]] [[ru:Алабама (штат)]] [[simple:Alabama]] [[sk:Alabama]] [[sl:Alabama]] [[sr:Алабама]] [[sv:Alabama]] [[th:มลรัฐแอละแบมา]] [[tr:Alabama]] [[uk:Алабама]] [[zh:阿拉巴馬州]] [[zh-min-nan:Alabama]]utf-8lines of the ''Iliad'' read: :{{Polytonic|μῆνιν ἄειδε θεὰ Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος}} :{{Polytonic|οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκεν,}} Transliterated: :Mēnin aeide thea, Pēlēiadeō Akhileōs :oulomenēn, hē muri' Akhaiois alge' ethēken, Translated: :Sing, Muse, the wrath of Achilles the son of Peleus, :the destructive wrath, that brought a thousand griefs upon the Achaeans, [[Image:G-achilles-trojan-wars-bb-l.jpg|thumb|left|Statue of Achilles]]In these lines, we see the name Akhilleus Peleides, which is a [[praenomen]] and a [[patronymic]], the latter being formed from Peleus with the suffix -ides producing ''Achilles the son of [[Peleus]]''. The system is similar to the names used by [[Scandinavians]] before modern times, such as Leif Erikson. The formation of the name casts no doubt of having a much older origin than either culture. Similarly, Peleus' name would be Peleus Aiakides, Peleus the son of [[Aiakos]]. There is no [[Roman naming convention|nomen gentile]], as among the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]]s, indicating that [[clan]] names might not be [[Indo-European]] after all. Achilles' name can also be analyzed as a combination of {{Polytonic|ἄχος}} (''akhos'') \"grief\" and {{Polytonic|λαός}} (''laos'') \"a people, tribe, nation, etc.\" [http://www.stanford.edu/group/shl/Crowds/hist/laos.htm]. In other words, Achilles is an embodiment of the grief of the people, grief being a theme raised numerous times in the Iliad (frequently by Achilles). Most significant is Achilles' use of the story of [[Niobe]], which he uses to express the grief felt by those in mourning for the dead. Achilles' role as the hero of grief forms an ironic juxtaposition with the conventional view of Achilles as the hero of kleos (glory, usually glory in war). Similarly, There is a very strong derivation of Achilles devised by Leonard Palmer and expostulated in the first work cited below, by Gregory Nagy. The name is Indo-European: \"whose laos has akhos\", where laos is a corps of soldiers and akhos is grief. As it is used in the poem, which is stuffed full of irony, there is a double entendre: when the hero is functioning rightly, his men bring grief to the enemy, but when wrongly, his men get the grief. The poem is in part about the misdirection of anger on the part of leadership. ==Birth== Achilles was the son of the mortal [[Peleus]], king of the [[Myrmidons]] in [[Phthia]] (southeast [[Thessaly]]), and the sea nymph [[Thetis]]. [[Zeus]] and [[Poseidon]] were rivals for the hand of Thetis. That is until [[Prometheus]] the fire bringer revealed that if one of these gods wed Thetis, she would bear a son greater than his father. For this reason, the two gods withdrew their pursuit. When Achilles was born, Thetis had tried to make Achilles immortal by dipping him in the river [[Styx (mythology)|Styx]], but forgot to wet the heel she held him by, leaving him vulnerable. (See [[Achilles' tendon]].) Homer does not make reference to this invulnerability in the [[Iliad]]. Homer does, however, mention Achilles' being wounded, although not seriously. In an earlier and less popular version of the story, Thetis anointed the boy in [[ambrosia]] and put him on top of a fire to burn away the mortal parts of his body. She was interrupted by Peleus and abandoned both father and son in a rage. Peleus gave him (together with his young friend [[Patroclus]]) to [[Chiron]] the [[Centaur]], on Mt. [[Pelion]], to raise. ==Achilles in the Trojan War== ===Telephus=== When the Greeks left for the Trojan War, they accidentally stopped in [[Mysia]], ruled by King [[Telephus]]. In the battle, Achilles wounded Telephus. The wound would not heal and Telephus asked an oracle who stated that \"he who is wounded shall heal\". According to other reports in [[Euripides]]' lost play about Telephus, he went to [[Aulis]] pretending to be a beggar and asked Achilles to heal his wound. Achilles refused, claiming to have no medical knowledge. Alternatively, Telephus held [[Orestes (mythology)|Orestes]] for ransom, the ransom being Achilles' aid in healing the wound. [[Odysseus]] reasoned that the spear had inflicted the wound; therefore, the spear must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound and Telephus was healed. This is an example of [[sympathetic magic]]. ===During the Trojan War=== [[Image:The_Rage_of_Achilles_by_Giovanni_Battista_Tiepolo.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|“The Rage of Achilles” by [[Giovanni Battista Tiepolo]]]] Achilles is one of only six people/beings described as \"god-like\" in the ''[[Iliad]]'' (The others were Polyphetes, Lycophontes, Ereuthalion, Maeon, and Polyphemus). It should be noted that while the term 'godlike,' was not directly used, others were also suggested to be godlike (eg - Theseus is described as 'peer to the gods'). In Homer's Iliad, Achilles is the only mortal to experience consuming rage (\"menon\"). His anger is at some times wavering, at other times absolute. The humanization of Achilles by the events of the war is an important theme of the ''[[Iliad]]''. Achilles' [[charioteer]]'s name was [[Automedon]]. ====Troilus==== According to [[Dares Phrygius]]' ''Account of the Destruction of Troy'' [http://homepage.mac.com/cparada/GML/DaresTW.html], while this youngest son of [[Priam]] and [[Hecuba]] (some say that it was Apollo who fathered [[Troilus]] on Hecuba) was watering his horses at the Lion Fountain outside the walls of Troy, Achilles saw him and fell in love with his beauty (whose \"loveliness of form\" was described by [[Ibycus]] as being like \"gold thrice refined\"). The youth rejected his advances and took refuge inside the temple of [[Apollo]]. Achilles pursued him into the sanctuary and decapitated him on the god's own altar. ([[John Tzetzes|Tzetzes]], [[scholiast]] on [[Lycophron]]). At the time Troilus was said to be a year short of his twentieth birthday, and the legend goes that if Troilus had lived to be twenty, Troy would have been invincible. ([[First Vatican Mythographer]]) ====Agamemnon and the death of Patroclus==== [[Image:Patrocluspederastyscene.jpg|thumb|250px|left|[[Patroclus]] and Achilles. Achilles bandages the arm of his friend Patroclus. The latter turns his head aside to avoid the sight of blood and of Achilles noticing his pain grimaces. The scene has been interpreted as an act of welfare and comradeship, or as a scene with sexual overtones. Ancient Greek culture often held the two [[Iliad#The_relationship_of_Achilles_and_Patroclus|to be lovers]]]] Achilles took twenty-three towns outside [[Troy]], including [[Lyrnessos]], where he captured [[Briseis]] to keep as a [[concubine]]. Meanwhile, [[Agamemnon]] took a woman named [[Chryseis]] and taunted her father, [[Chryses]], a priest of [[Apollo (god)|Apollo]], when he attempted to buy her back. Apollo sent a plague through the Greek armies and Agamemnon was forced to give Chryseis back to her father; however he took Briseis away from Achilles as compensation for his loss. This action sparked the central plot of the [[Iliad]]: Achilles becomes enraged and refuses to fight for the Greeks any further. The war goes badly, through the influence of [[Zeus]], and the Greeks offer handsome reparations to their greatest warrior. After the Greeks are pushed back to the ships, which are just starting to be set on fire by [[Hector]], Achilles is visited by [[Odysseus]], [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax]], and [[Phoenix (Iliad)|Phoenix]] who attempt to persuade him to return to battle. Achilles still refuses to fight, but agrees to allow [[Patroclus]] to fight in his place, wearing his armor. The next day [[Patroclus]] is killed and stripped of the armor by the Trojan hero Hector, who mistakes him for Achilles. Achilles is overwhelmed with grief for his beloved friend, and the rage he once harbored toward Agamemnon begins shifting to Hector. Thetis, his mother, rises from the sea floor and berates him for excessive grief. She obtains magnificent new armor for him from [[Hephaestus]]. The goddess [[Athena]] provides him with the [[aegis]] of Zeus. When he goes to the battlefield, the entire Trojan army flees behind the walls of Troy. Achilles' wrath is terrible, and he slays many Trojan warriors and allies, including Priam's son [[Lycaon]] (whom Achilles had previously captured and sold into slavery, but who had been returned to Troy). Eventually [[Hector]] comes out of the walls to defend the honour of Troy. After a legendary fight Achilles kills Hector. Other versions of the tale say that Achilles chased after Hector two times, and one time he was delivered by the gods, however on their second encounter Achilles trapped Hector and challenged him. Stories tell that Hector ran about Troy seven times and Achilles followed him, however seeing that Achilles would not be outrun Hector stood his ground and fought. Before this however Hector asked for a compromise, that the body of the loser would be returned for proper burial by the winner. Achilles did however not honor this request, but rather replied, \"though twenty ransoms and thy weight in gold were offered, I would refuse it all.\" Influenced by his anger, he drags the body of Hector behind his chariot round the walls of Troy three times, and refuses to allow it to receive [[funeral rites]]. Much to the dismay of Achilles, the body of Hector miraculously heals and will not decay as normally expected. [[Aphrodite]], the goddess of love whom sided with Troy throughout the whole conflict, put a protective barrier over [[Hector]], which kept him looking like he did before he was viciously killed by Achilles. When [[Priam]], the king of Troy and Hector's father, comes secretly into the Greek camp to plead for the body, Achilles finally relents; in one of the most moving scenes of the ''Iliad'', he receives Priam graciously and allows him to take the body away. The scene is intensely moving because [[Priam]], the king of one of the greatest cities in the known world, kneels down, old and frail as he is, and kisses the hands of the man who killed his son. The greatness of Achilles lies in not just being the greatest Greek fighter ever, but in knowing the choice provided to him by [[Destiny]]. His mother Thetis had prophesied to him that if he pulled out of the [[Trojan War]], he would enjoy a long and a happy life. If Achilles fought, however, he would die before the walls of [[Troy]] but assure an everlasting glory, surpassing that of all other heroes. He had made the choice, and coming face to face with it showed his greatness. ====Xanthos==== During the [[Trojan War]], [[Balius and Xanthos|Xanthos]], one of Achilles' horses, was rebuked by Achilles for allowing [[Patroclus]] to be killed. Xanthos responded by saying (Hera temporarily gave him voice to do so) that a god and a mortal had killed Patroclus and a god and a mortal would soon kill Achilles too. ====Memnon, Cycnus, Penthesilea, and the death of Achilles==== [[Image:TBanksThetis.jpg|thumb|right|300px|''Thetis rising from the sea to comfort Achilles'' (Book 18), by [[Thomas Banks]], English, [[1778]] [[Victoria and Albert Museum]]]] Shortly after the death of [[Hector]], Achilles defeated [[Memnon]] of [[Ethiopia]], [[Cycnus]] of [[Colonae]] and the [[Amazons|Amazonian]] warrior [[Penthesilia]] (with whom Achilles also had an affair in some versions). As predicted by [[Hector]] with his dying breath, Achilles was thereafter killed by [[Paris (mythology)|Paris]] — either by an arrow to the heel (which may have subsequently become fatally infected, and is said to have been guided by [[Apollo]]), or in an older version by a knife to the back while visiting [[Polyxena]], a princess of Troy. Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valor, and Achilles remains undefeated on the battlefield (Paris was later killed by Philoctetes using the enormous bow of Heracles). His bones are mingled with those of [[Patroclus]], and funeral games are held. Like Ajax, he is represented (although not by [[Homer]]) as living after his death in the island of [[Leuke]] at the mouth of the [[Danube]]. ====The fate of Achilles' armor==== Achilles' armor was the object of a feud between [[Odysseus]] and [[Telamonian Aias|Ajax the Greater]] (Achilles' older cousin). They competed for it and Odysseus won. Ajax went mad with grief and vowed to kill his comrades; he started killing cattle (thinking they were Greek soldiers), and then himself. ==Other Stories About Achilles== Some post-Homeric sources claim that in order to keep Achilles safe from the war, Thetis (or, in some versions, Peleus) hid the young man at the court of [[Lycomedes]], king of [[Skyros]]. There, Achilles was disguised as a girl and lived among Lycomedes' daughters under the name \"Pyrrha\" (the red-haired girl). With Lycomedes' daughter [[Deidamea|Deidamia]], Achilles fathered a son, [[Neoptolemus]] (also called Pyrrhus, after his father's alias). According to this story, Odysseus learned from the prophet [[Calchas]] that the Achaeans would be unable to capture Troy without Achilles' aid. He went to Skyros in the guise of a peddler selling women's clothes and jewelry, but placed a shield and spear among his goods. When Achilles instantly took up the spear, Odysseus saw through his disguise and convinced him to join the Trojan campaign. In another version of the story, Odysseus arranged for a trumpet alarm to be sounded while he was with Lycomedes' women; while the women fled in panic, Achilles prepared to defend the court, thus giving his identity away. The story about Achilles in [[drag (clothing)|drag]] is not found in Homer. In Homer's ''[[Odyssey]]'', there is a passage in which Odysseus sails to the underworld and converses with the shades. One of these is Achilles, who when greeted as \"blessed in life, blessed in death\", responds that he would rather be a slave than be dead. This has been interpreted as a rejection of his warrior life, but also as indignity to his martyrdom being slighted. The kings of [[Epirus]] claimed to be descended from Achilles through his son. [[Alexander the Great]], son of the Epiran princess [[Olympias]], could therefore also claim this descent, and in many ways strove to be like his great ancestor; he is said to have visited his tomb while passing Troy. Achilles was worshipped as a sea-god in many of the [[Greek colonies]] on the [[Black Sea]]. Achilles fought and killed the [[Amazons|Amazon]] [[Helene (mythology)|Helene]]. Some also said he married [[Medea]]. ==The Lost Play of Aeschylus== In the early [[1990]]s a lost play by [[Aeschylus]] was discovered in the wrappings of a [[mummy]] in [[Egypt]]. The play, ''[[Achilles (play)|Achilles]]'', was part of a [[trilogy]] about the [[Trojan War]]. It was known to exist due to mentions in ancient sources, but had been lost for over 2,000 years. There is another lost play with Achilles as the main character, ''The Lovers of Achilles'', by [[Sophocles]]. ==Spoken-word myths (audio)== {| border=\"1\" cellpadding=\"5\" cellspacing=\"0\" |- ! style=\"background:#ffdead;\" | Achilles myths as told by story tellers |- |[[Media:Achilles and Patroclus wiki.ogg|'''1. Achilles and Patroclus,''' read by Timothy Carter]] |- |Bibliography of reconstruction: [[Homer]] ''Iliad,'' 9.308, 16.2, 11.780, 23.54 ([[700 BC]]); [[Pindar]] ''[[Olympian Odes]],'' IX ([[476 BC]]); [[Aeschylus]] ''Myrmidons,'' F135-36 ([[495 BC]]); [[Euripides]] ''Iphigenia in Aulis,'' ([[405 BC]]); [[Plato]] ''Symposium,'' 179e ([[388 BC]]-[[367 BC]]); [[Statius]] ''Achilleid,'' 161, 174, 182 ([[96]] CE) |- |} ==Achilles in Music== \"Achilles, Agony & Ecstasy In Eight Parts\", by [[Manowar]]; from the album ''The Triumph of Steel'', [[1992]], [[Atlantic Records]]. \"[[Achilles Last Stand]]\", by [[Led Zeppelin]]; from the album ''Presence'', [[1976]], Atlantic Records; \"Achilles' Revenge\", by [[Warlord]]. * Achilles' Heel is an album by the indie rock band [[Pedro the Lion]] * Achilles and his heel are referenced in the song \"Special K\" by the rock band Placebo *Achilles is referred to in [[Bob Dylan]]'s song, ''Temporary Like Achilles'' ==Achilles in film== The role of Achilles has been played by: * [[Stanley Baker]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (movie)|Helen of Troy]]'' ([[1956]]) * [[Arturo Dominici]] in ''[[La Guerra di Troia (movie)|La Guerra di Troia]]'' ([[1962]]) * [[Derek Jacobi]] [voice] in Achilles (Channel Four Television) ([[1995]]) * [[Steve Davislim]] in ''[[La Belle Hélène (TV movie)|La Belle Hélène]]'' (TV, [[1996]]) * [[Joe Montana (actor)|Joe Montana]] in ''[[Helen of Troy (TV movie)|Helen of Troy]]'' (TV, [[2003]]) * [[Brad Pitt]] in ''[[Troy (movie)|Troy]]'' (2004) ==Namesakes== * The [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] gave the name [[HMNZS Achilles (70)|HMNZS ''Achilles'']] to an [[British A class destroyer|''A'' class]] [[destroyer]] which served in [[World War II]]. ==References== [[Homer]], [[Iliad]]; [[Homer]], [[Odyssey|Odyssey XI]], 467-540; [[Apollodorus]], [[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]] III, xiii, 5-8; [[Apollodorus]], [[Epitome III]], 14-V, 7; [[Ovid]], [[Metamorphoses (poem)|Metamorphoses]] XI, 217-265; XII, 580-XIII, 398; [[Ovid]], [[Heroides|Heroides III]]; [[Apollonius Rhodius]], [[Argonautica|Argonautica IV]], 783-879; [[Dante]], [[The Divine Comedy]], Inferno, V. ==Bibliography== * Ileana Chirassi Colombo, “Heros Achilleus— Theos Apollon.” In ''Il Mito Greco'', éd. Bruno Gentili & Giuseppe Paione, Rome, 1977; * Anthony Edwards: ** “Achilles in the Underworld: Iliad, Odyssey, and Æthiopis”, ''Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies'', 26 (1985): pp. 215-227 ; ** “Achilles in the Odyssey: Ideologies of Heroism in the Homeric Epic”, ''Beitrage zur klassischen Philologie'', 171, Meisenheim, 1985 ; ** “Kleos Aphthiton and Oral Theory,” ''Classical Quarterly'', 38 (1988): pp. 25-30 ; * Hélène Monsacré, ''Les larmes d'Achille. Le héros, la femme et la souffrance dans la poésie d'Homère'', Paris, Albin Michel, 1984; * [[Gregory Nagy]]: ** ''The Best of The Acheans. Concepts of the Hero in Archaic Greek Poetry'', Johns Hopkins University, 1999 (rev. edition); ** ''The Name of Achilles: Questions of Etymology and 'Folk Etymology''', ''Illinois Classical Studies'', 19, 1994; * Dale S. Sinos, ''The Entry of Achilles into Greek Epic'', Ph.D. thesis, Johns Hopkins University; ==External links== {{commons|Category:Achilles}} * [http://www.androphile.org/preview/Library/Mythology/Greek/ The Story of Achilles and Patroclus] * [http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/troy.html Trojan War Resources] [[Category:People who fought in the Trojan War]] [[Category:Anti-heroes|Achilles]] [[Category:Pederastic deities]] {{Link FA|fr}} [[ar:أخيل]] [[bg:Ахил]] [[da:Achilleus]] [[de:Achilleus]] [[et:Achilleus]] [[el:Αχιλλέας]] [[es:Aquiles]] [[eo:Aĥilo]] [[fa:آشیل]] [[fr:Achille]] [[ko:아킬레우스]] [[hr:Ahilej]] [[it:Achille]] [[he:אכילס]] [[la:Achilles]] [[lt:Achilas]] [[hu:Akhilleusz]] [[nl:Achilles]] [[ja:アキレウス]] [[no:Akilles]] [[pl:Achilles (mitologia)]] [[pt:Aquiles]] [[ru:Ахиллес]] [[sk:Achilles]] [[sl:Ahil]] [[fi:Akhilleus]] [[sv:Akilles]] [[uk:Ахіллес]] [[zh:阿喀琉斯]]utf-8[[James Buchanan]] | successor=[[Andrew Johnson]] | birth_date=[[February 12]], [[1809]] | birth_place=[[Hardin County, Kentucky]] (now in [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue County]]) | death_date=[[April 15]], [[1865]] | death_place=[[Washington, D.C.]] | spouse=[[Mary Todd Lincoln]] | party=[[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] | vicepresident=[[Hannibal Hamlin]] (1861 to 1865); [[Andrew Johnson]] (March - April 1865) }} '''Abraham Lincoln''' ([[February 12]], [[1809]] – [[April 15]], [[1865]]), sometimes called '''Abe Lincoln''' and nicknamed '''Honest Abe''', the '''Rail Splitter''', and the '''Great Emancipator''', was the 16th [[President of the United States]] (1861 to 1865), and the first president from the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. Lincoln was a great enemy of what he saw as the [[Slave Power]] and staunchly opposed its efforts to expand [[history of slavery in the United States|slavery]] into federal territories. His victory in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 presidential election]] further polarized an already divided nation. Before his [[inauguration]] in March of 1861, seven [[Southern United States|Southern]] [[slave state]]s [[secession|seceded]][[Confederate States of America#International Diplomacy and Legal Status|1]] from the [[United States]], formed the [[Confederate States of America]], and took control of U.S. forts and other properties within their boundaries. These events soon led to the [[American Civil War]]. Lincoln is often praised for his work as a wartime leader who proved adept at balancing competing considerations and at getting rival groups to work together toward a common goal. Lincoln had to negotiate between [[Radical Republican|Radical]] and Moderate Republican leaders, who were often far apart on the issues, while attempting to win support from [[War Democrats]] and loyalists in the seceding states. He personally directed the war effort, which ultimately led the Union forces to victory over the [[Confederate States of America|Confederacy]]. His leadership qualities were evident in his diplomatic handling of the border slave states at the beginning of the fighting, in his defeat of a congressional attempt to reorganize his cabinet in 1862, in his many speeches and writings which helped mobilize and inspire the North, and in his defusing of the peace issue in the [[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864 presidential campaign]]. [[Copperheads (politics)|Copperheads]] vehemently criticized him for violating the Constitution, overstepping the bounds of executive power, refusing to compromise on slavery, declaring [[martial law]], suspending [[habeas corpus]], ordering the arrest of thousands of public officials and a number of newspaper publishers, and killing hundreds of thousands of young men. [[Radical Republicans]] criticized him for going too slow on abolition of slavery, and not being ruthless enough toward the conquered South. Lincoln is most famous for his roles in preserving the Union and ending [[slavery]] in the United States with the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] and the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution]]. However, some abolitionists criticized him for only freeing the slaves under the Confederacy in 1863, and waiting until 1865 to free slaves held in the Union. Others claim that the Emancipation Proclamation was merely a populist stunt intended to cause insurrection in the South. Some historians also argue that Lincoln had a lasting influence on U.S. political and social institutions, importantly setting a precedent for greater centralization of powers in the federal government and the weakening of the powers of the individual [[state government]]s. This claim, however, is disputed as the federal government largely reverted to its former weakness after [[Reconstruction]] and the modern administrative state would only emerge with the [[New Deal]] some seventy years later. Lincoln spent most of his attention on military matters and politics but with his strong support his administration established the current system of [[national bank]]s with the [[National Bank Act]]. He increased the [[Morrill tariff|tariff]] to raise revenue and encourage factories, imposed the first [[Income tax in the United States|income tax]], issued hundreds of millions of dollars of bonds and Greenbacks, encouraged immigration from Europe, built the [[First Transcontinental Railroad|transcontinental railroad]], set up [[United States Department of Agriculture|Department of Agriculture]], encouraged farm ownership with the [[Homestead Act]] of 1862, and set up the modern system of state universities with the [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]]. During the war his Treasury department effectively controlled all cotton trade in the occupied South--the most dramatic incursion of federal controls on the economy. During his administration [[West Virginia]] and [[Nevada]] were admitted as states. Lincoln is usually [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|ranked as one of the greatest presidents]]. Because of his roles in destroying slavery, redefining national values, and saving the Union, his [[assassination]] made him a [[martyr]] to millions of Americans. ==Early life== Abraham Lincoln was born on [[February 12]], [[1809]], in a one-room [[log cabin]] on a 348 acre (1.4 km²) Sinking Spring Farm in the Southeast part of [[Hardin County, Kentucky]], then considered the [[frontier]] (now part of [[LaRue County, Kentucky|LaRue Co.]], in Nolin Creek, three miles (5 km) south of [[Hodgenville, Kentucky|Hodgenville]]), to [[Thomas Lincoln]] and [[Nancy Hanks]]. Lincoln was named after his deceased grandfather, who was [[scalping|scalped]] in 1786 in an Indian raid. He had no middle name. Lincoln's parents were uneducated, illiterate farmers. When Lincoln became famous, reporters and storytellers often exaggerated the poverty and obscurity of his birth. However Lincoln's father Thomas was a respected and relatively affluent citizen of the Kentucky backcountry. He had purchased the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site|Sinking Spring Farm]] in December 1808 for $200 cash and assumption of a debt. His parents belonged to a Baptist church that had pulled away from a larger church because they refused to support slavery. From a very young age, Lincoln was exposed to anti-slavery sentiment. However he never joined his parents' church, or any other church, and as a youth ridiculed religion. Three years after purchasing the property, a prior land claim filed in Hardin Circuit Court forced the Lincolns to move. Thomas continued legal action until he lost the case in 1815. Legal expenses contributed to family difficulties. In 1811, they were able to lease 30 acres (0.1 km²) of a 230 acre (0.9 km²) farm on Knob Creek a few miles away, where they then moved. In a valley of the [[Rolling Fork River]], this was some of the best farmland in the area. At this time, Lincoln's father was a respected community member and a successful farmer and carpenter. Lincoln's earliest recollections are from this farm. In 1815, another claimant sought to eject the family from the [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site|Knob Creek farm]]. Frustrated with litigation and lack of security provided by Kentucky courts, Thomas decided to move to [[Indiana]], which had been surveyed by the federal government, making land titles more secure. It is possible that these episodes motivated Abraham to later learn surveying and become an attorney. In 1816, when Lincoln was seven years old, he and his parents moved to [[Spencer County, Indiana]], he would state \"partly on account of slavery\" and partly because of economic difficulties in Kentucky. In 1818 Lincoln's mother died of \"[[milk sickness]]\" at age thirty four, when Abe was nine. Soon afterwards, Lincoln's father remarried to Sarah Bush Johnston. Sarah Lincoln raised young Lincoln like one of her own children. Years later she compared Lincoln to her own son, saying \"Both were good boys, but I must say — both now being dead that Abe was the best boy I ever saw or ever expect to see.\" (''Lincoln'', by David Herbert Donald, 1995) In 1830, after more economic and land-title difficulties in Indiana, the family settled on government land on a site selected by Lincoln's father in [[Macon County, Illinois]]. The following winter was especially brutal, and the family nearly moved back to Indiana. When his father relocated the family to a nearby site the following year, the 22-year-old Lincoln struck out on his own, [[canoe]]ing down the Sangamon to [[Sangamon County, Illinois]] (now in [[Menard County, Illinois|Menard County]]), in the village of [[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem]]. Later that year, hired by New Salem businessman [[Denton Offutt]] and accompanied by friends, he took goods from New Salem to [[New Orleans, Louisiana|New Orleans]] via [[flatboat]] on the Sangamon, [[Illinois River|Illinois]] and [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] [[river]]s. While in New Orleans, he may have witnessed a slave auction that left an indelible impression on him for the rest of his life. Whether he actually witnessed a slave auction at that time or not, living in a country with a considerable slave presence, he probably saw similar atrocities from time to time. His formal education consisted of perhaps 18 months of schooling from itinerant teachers. In effect he was self-educated, studying every book he could borrow. He mastered the Bible, Shakespeare, English history and American history, and developed a plain style that puzzled audiences more used to orotund oratory. He avoided hunting and fishing because he did not like killing animals even for food and, though unusually tall and strong, spent so much time reading that some neighbors thought he must be doing it to avoid strenuous manual labor. He was skilled with an axe—they called him the \"rail splitter\"—and a good wrestler. [[Image:Abe_Lincoln_young.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Young Abraham Lincoln]] ==Early career== Lincoln began his political career in 1832 at the age of 23 with a campaign for the [[Illinois General Assembly]] as a member of the [[Whig Party (United States)|Whig Party]]. The centerpiece of his platform was the undertaking of navigational improvements on the [[Sangamon River]] in the hopes of attracting [[steamboat]] traffic to the river, which would allow sparsely populated, poor areas along and near the river to grow and prosper. He served as a captain in a company of the [[Illinois]] [[militia]] drawn from New Salem during the [[Black Hawk War]], although he never saw combat. He wrote after being elected by his peers that he had not had \"any such success in life which gave him so much satisfaction.\" He later tried and failed at several small-time business ventures. He held an Illinois state [[liquor]] license and sold whiskey. Finally, after coming across the second volume of [[Sir William Blackstone]]'s four-volume ''[[Commentaries on the Laws of England]]'', he taught himself the [[law]], and was admitted to the [[Illinois State Bar Association|Illinois Bar]] in 1837. That same year, he moved to [[Springfield, Illinois]] and began to practice law with [[Stephen T. Logan]]. He became one of the most highly respected and successful lawyers in the prairie state, and grew steadily more prosperous. Lincoln served four successive terms in the [[Illinois House of Representatives]], as a representative from [[Sangamon County, Illinois|Sangamon County]], beginning in 1834. He became a leader of the Whig party in the legislature. In 1837 he made his first protest against slavery in the Illinois House, stating that the institution was \"founded on both injustice and bad policy.\" [http://www.hti.umich.edu/l/lincoln/] Lincoln shared a bed with [[Joshua Fry Speed]] from 1837 to 1841 in Springfield. While many claim it was not uncommon in the mid-19th century for men to share a bed (just as two men today may share a house or an apartment), some historians including [[C. A. Tripp]] in his 2005 biography ''[[The Intimate World of Abraham Lincoln]]'', have suggested their relationship may also have been sexual, which has generated controversy. In 1841 Lincoln entered law practice with [[William Herndon (lawyer)|William Herndon]], a fellow Whig. In 1856 both men joined the fledgling [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican Party]]. Following Lincoln's assassination, Herndon began collecting stories about Lincoln from those who knew him in central Illinois, eventually publishing a book, ''Herndon's Lincoln''. Lincoln never joined an antislavery society and denied he supported the abolitionists. He married into a prominent slave-owning family from Kentucky, and allowed his children to spend time there surrounded by slaves. Several of his in-laws became Confederate officers. He greatly admired the science that flourished in New England, and was perhaps the only father in Illinois at the time to send his son, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], to elite eastern schools, [[Phillips Exeter Academy]] and [[Harvard College]]. ==Marriage== On [[November 4]], [[1842]], at the age of 33, Lincoln married [[Mary Todd Lincoln|Mary Todd]]. The couple had four sons. *[[Robert Todd Lincoln]]: b. [[August 1]], [[1843]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[July 26]], [[1926]], in [[Manchester, Vermont]]. *Edward Baker Lincoln: b. [[March 10]], [[1846]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[February 1]], [[1850]], in Springfield, Illinois. *William Wallace Lincoln: b. [[December 21]], [[1850]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[February 20]], [[1862]], in Washington, D.C. *Thomas \"Tad\" Lincoln: b. [[April 4]], [[1853]], in Springfield, Illinois; d. [[July 16]], [[1871]], in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. Only Robert survived into adulthood. Of Robert's three children, only [[Jessie Harlan|Jessie Lincoln]] had any children (two: Mary Lincoln Beckwith and Robert Todd Lincoln Beckwith). Neither Robert Beckwith nor Mary Beckwith had any children, so Abraham Lincoln's bloodline ended when Robert Beckwith (Lincoln's great-grandson) died on [[December 24]], [[1985]]. [http://members.aol.com/beaufait/biography/geneology.htm] ==Illinois politics== [[Image:Abelincoln1846.jpeg|thumb|Lincoln in 1846 or 1847]] In 1846 Lincoln was elected to one term in the [[United States House of Representatives|U.S. House of Representatives]]. A staunch Whig, Lincoln often referred to party leader [[Henry Clay]] as his political idol. As a freshman House member, Lincoln was not a particularly powerful or influential figure in Congress. He used his office as an opportunity to speak out against the [[Mexican-American War|war]] with [[Mexico]], which he attributed to [[James Knox Polk|President Polk]]'s desire for \"military glory — that attractive rainbow, that rises in showers of blood.\" Lincoln was a key early supporter of [[Zachary Taylor]]'s candidacy for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1848|1848 Whig Presidential nomination]]. When Lincoln's term ended, the incoming Taylor administration offered him the governorship of remote [[Oregon Territory]]. Acceptance would end his career in the fast-growing state of Illinois, so he declined. Returning instead to [[Springfield, Illinois]] he turned most of his energies to making a living at the [[bar (law)|bar]], which involved extensive travel on horseback from county to county. ==Prairie lawyer== By the mid-[[1850s]], Lincoln faced competing transportation interests — both the river [[barge]]s and the [[railroad]]s. In 1849, he received a patent related to buoying vessels. Lincoln represented the [[Alton & Sangamon Railroad]] in an 1851 dispute with one of its shareholders, [[James A. Barret]]. Barret had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to that corporation on the grounds that it had changed its originally planned route. Lincoln argued that as a matter of law a corporation is not bound by its original charter when that charter can be amended in the public interest, that the newer proposed Alton & Sangamon route was superior and less expensive, and that accordingly the corporation had a right to sue Mr. Barret for his delinquent payment. He won this case, and the decision by the [[Illinois Supreme Court]] was eventually cited by several other courts throughout the United States. Another important example of Lincoln's skills as a railroad lawyer was a lawsuit over a tax exemption that the state granted to the [[Illinois Central Railroad]]. [[McLean County, Illinois|McLean County]] argued that the state had no authority to grant such an exemption, and it sought to impose taxes on the railroad notwithstanding. In January 1856, the Illinois Supreme Court delivered its opinion upholding the tax exemption, accepting Lincoln's arguments. Lincoln's most notable criminal trial came in 1858 when he defended [[William \"Duff\" Armstrong]], who was on trial for the murder of [[James Preston Metzker]]. The case is famous for Lincoln's use of [[judicial notice]], a rare tactic at that time, to show an eyewitness had lied on the stand, claiming he witnessed the crime in the moonlight. Lincoln produced a [[Farmer's Almanac]] to show that the moon on that date was at such a low angle it could not have produced enough illumination to see anything clearly. Based upon this evidence, Armstrong was acquitted. ==Republican politics 1854-1860== The [[Kansas-Nebraska Act]] of 1854, which expressly repealed the limits on slavery's spread that had been part of the [[Missouri Compromise]] of 1820, drew Lincoln back into politics. Illinois Democrat [[Stephen A. Douglas]], the most powerful man in the Senate, proposed [[popular sovereignty]] as the solution to the slavery impasse, incorporating it into the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Douglas argued that in a democracy the people of a territory should decide whether to allow slavery or not, and not have a decision imposed on them by Congress. It was a speech against Kansas-Nebraska, on [[October 16]], [[1854]] in [[Peoria, Illinois|Peoria]], that caused Lincoln to stand out among the other [[free soil]] orators of the day. He helped form the new Republican party, drawing on remnants of the old Whig, [[Free Soil Party|Free Soil]], Liberty and Democratic parties. In a stirring campaign, the Republicans carried Illinois in 1854, and elected a senator. Lincoln was the obvious choice, but to keep party unity he allowed the election to go to his colleague [[Lyman Trumbull]]. In 1857-58 Douglas broke with President [[James Buchanan|Buchanan]], leading to a terrific fight for control of the Democratic party. Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas in 1858, since he led the opposition to the administration's push for the [[Lecompton Constitution]] which would have admitted Kansas as a [[slave state]]. Accepting the Republican nomination for the Senate in 1858, Lincoln delivered a famous speech [http://www.nationalcenter.org/HouseDivided.html] in which he stated, \"A house divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all one thing, or all the other.\" The speech created a lasting image of the danger of disunion due to slavery, and rallied Republicans across the north. The 1858 campaign featured the [[Lincoln-Douglas Debates of 1858|Lincoln-Douglas debates]], a nationally noticed discussion on the issues that threatened to split the nation in two. Lincoln forced Douglas to propose his [[Freeport Doctrine]], which lost him further support among slave-holders and speeded the division of the [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic Party]]. Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes, the Democrats won more seats and the legislature reelected Douglas to the Senate (this was before the [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|17th Amendment]] prescribed popular vote for Senate seats). Nevertheless, Lincoln's eloquence transformed him into a national political star. ==Election of 1860== [[Image:The Rail Candidate.jpg|thumb|\"The Rail Candidate\", political cartoon, 1860]] Entering the presidential nomination process as a distinct underdog, Lincoln was eventually chosen as the Republican candidate for the [[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860 election]] for several reasons. His expressed views on slavery were seen as more moderate than rivals [[William H. Seward]] and [[Salmon Chase]]. His \"western\" origins also appealed to the newer states. Other contenders, especially those with more governmental experience, had acquired enemies within the party, specifically Seward, who had run afoul of newspaperman [[Horace Greeley]]. During the campaign, Lincoln was dubbed \"The Rail Splitter\" by Republicans to emphasize the power of \"free labor,\" whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts. On [[November 6]], [[1860]], Lincoln was elected the 16th President of the United States, beating Democrat Douglas, [[John C. Breckenridge]] of the Southern Democrats, and [[John C. Bell]] of the new [[Constitutional Union Party]]. Lincoln was the first Republican president. He won entirely on the strength of his support in the North: he was not even on the ballot in nine states in the South — and won only 2 of 996 counties there. Lincoln gained 1,865,908 votes (39.9% of the total,) for 180 electoral votes, Douglas 1,380,202 (29.5%) for 12 electoral votes, Breckenridge 848,019 (18.1%) for 72 electoral votes, and Bell 590,901 (12.5%) for 39 electoral votes. There were fusion tickets in some states, but even if his opponents had combined in every state, Lincoln had a majority vote in all but two of the states in which he won the electoral votes, and would still have won the electoral college and the election. ==Secession winter 1860-61== As Lincoln's election became more and more probable secessionists made it clear that their states would leave the Union. South Carolina took the lead followed by six other [[cotton]]-growing states: Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas. The upper South (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, and Arkansas) listened to and rejected the secessionist appeal. They decided to stay in the Union, though warning Lincoln they would not support an invasion through their territory. The seven Confederate states seceded before Lincoln took office, forming an entirely new nation, the [[Confederate States of America]]. President Buchanan and president-elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy. President-elect Lincoln survived an [[assassination]] threat in Baltimore, and on February 23, 1861 arrived in disguise in Washington. At Lincoln's inauguration on [[March 4]], [[1861]], the [[Turners]] formed Lincoln's bodyguard; and a sizable garrison of federal troops was also present, ready to protect the capital from Confederate invasion or insurrection from Confederates in the capital city. [[Image:Abraham lincoln inauguration 1861.jpg|thumb|left|175px|Photograph showing March 4, 1861 inauguration of Abraham Lincoln in front of U.S. Capitol]] In his [[Lincoln's First Inaugural|First Inaugural]] Address, Lincoln declared, \"I hold that in contemplation of universal law and of the Constitution the Union of these States is perpetual. Perpetuity is implied, if not expressed, in the fundamental law of all national governments\", arguing further that the purpose of the [[United States Constitution]] was \"to form a more perfect union\" than the [[Articles of Confederation]] which were ''explicitly'' perpetual, and thus the Constitution too was perpetual. He asked rhetorically that even were the Constitution construed as a simple contract, would it not require the agreement of all parties to rescind it? Also in his inaugural address, in a final attempt to unite the Union and prevent the looming war, Lincoln supported the proposed [[Corwin Amendment]] to the constitution, of which he had been a driving force. It would have explicitly protected slavery in those states in which it already existed, and had already passed both houses. Lincoln adamantly opposed the [[Crittenden Compromise]], however, which would have permitted slavery in the territories, renewing the boundary set by the [[Missouri Compromise]] and extending it to [[California]]. Despite support for this compromise among some Republicans, Lincoln declared that were the Crittenden Compromise accepted, it \"would amount to a perpetual covenant of war against every people, tribe, and state owning a foot of land between here and [[Tierra del Fuego]].\" Because opposition to slavery expansion was the key issue uniting the Republican Party at the time, Lincoln is sometimes criticized for putting politics ahead of the national interest in refusing any compromise allowing the expansion of slavery. Supporters of Lincoln, however, point out that he did not oppose slavery because he was a Republican, but became a Republican because of his opposition to the expansion of slavery, that he opposed several other Republicans who were in favor of compromise, and that he clearly thought his course of action was in the national interest. By the time Lincoln took office the Confederacy was an established fact and not a single leader of that country ever proposed rejoining the USA on any terms. No compromise was found because no compromise was possible. Lincoln perhaps could have allowed the southern states to secede, and some Republicans recommended that. However conservative Democratic nationalists, such as [[Jeremiah S. Black]], [[Joseph Holt]], and [[Edwin M. Stanton]] had taken control of Buchanan's cabinet around January 1, 1861, and refused to accept secession. Lincoln, and nearly all Republican leaders, adopted this nationalistic position by March, 1861: the Union could not be broken. ==War begins: 1861-62== After Union troops at [[Battle of Fort Sumter|Fort Sumter]] were fired on and forced to surrender in April, Lincoln called on governors of every state to send 75,000 troops to recapture forts, protect the capital, and \"preserve the Union,\" which in his view still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states. Virginia, which had repeatedly warned Lincoln it would not allow an invasion of its territory or join an attack on another state, then seceded, along with North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas. The slave states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware did not secede, and Lincoln urgently negotiated with state leaders there, promising not to interfere with slavery in loyal states. ==Emancipation Proclamation== [[Image:Emancipation_proclamation.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Lincoln met with his Cabinet for the first reading of the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] draft on [[July 22]], [[1862]].]] {{see|Abraham Lincoln on slavery|Emancipation Proclamation}} Congress in July 1862 moved to free the slaves by passing the Second Confiscation Act. It provided: :That if any person shall hereafter incite, set on foot, assist, or engage in any rebellion or insurrection against the authority of the United States, or the laws thereof, or shall give aid or comfort thereto, or shall engage in, or give aid and comfort to, any such existing rebellion or insurrection, and be convicted thereof, such person shall be punished by imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years, or by a fine not exceeding ten thousand dollars, and by the liberation of all his slaves, if any he have; or by both of said punishments, at the discretion of the court. :.... :SEC. 9. And be it further enacted, That all slaves of persons who shall hereafter be engaged in rebellion against the government of the United States, or who shall in any way give aid or comfort thereto, escaping from such persons and taking refuge within the lines of the army; and all slaves captured from such persons or deserted by them and coming under the control of the government of the United States; and all slaves of such person found on [or] being within any place occupied by rebel forces and afterwards occupied by the forces of the United States, shall be deemed captives of war, and shall be forever free of their servitude, and not again held as slaves. Thus everyone who 60 days after [[July 17]], [[1862]] supported the rebellion was to be punished by having all their slaves freed. The goal was to weaken the rebellion, which was led and controlled by slave owners. This did not abolish the legal institution of slavery (the XIII Amendment did that), but it shows Lincoln had the support of (and was even somewhat pushed by) Congress in liberating the slaves owned by rebels. Lincoln implemented the new law by his \"Emancipation Proclamation.\" Lincoln is well known for ending slavery in the United States and he personally opposed slavery as a profound moral evil not in accord with the principle of equality asserted in the [[Declaration of Independence (United States)|Declaration of Independence]]. Yet, Lincoln's views of the role of the federal government on the subject of slavery are more complicated. Before the Confederate states seceded, Lincoln had campaigned against the expansion of slavery into the [[Historic regions of the United States|territories]], where Congress did have authority. However, he maintained that the federal government could not constitutionally bar slavery in states where it already existed. During his presidency, Lincoln made it clear that the North was fighting the war to preserve the Union, not to abolish slavery. Freeing the slaves was a war measure to weaken the rebellion by destroying the economic base of its leadership class. Lincoln was criticized both at home and abroad for his refusal to take a stand for the complete abolition of slavery. On [[August 22]], [[1862]], a few weeks before signing the Proclamation, and after it had already been drafted, Lincoln responded by letter to an editorial by [[Horace Greeley]] of the ''[[New York Tribune]]'' which had urged abolition: :I would save the Union. I would save it the shortest way under the Constitution. The sooner the national authority can be restored; the nearer the Union will be \"the Union as it was.\" If there be those who would not save the Union, unless they could at the same time save slavery, I do not agree with them. If there be those who would not save the Union unless they could at the same time destroy slavery, I do not agree with them. My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union, and is not either to save or to destroy slavery. If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it, and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that. What I do about slavery, and the colored race, I do because I believe it helps to save the Union; and what I forbear, I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union. I shall do less whenever I shall believe what I am doing hurts the cause, and I shall do more whenever I shall believe doing more will help the cause. I shall try to correct errors when shown to be errors; and I shall adopt new views so fast as they shall appear to be true views. :I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty; and I intend no modification of my oft-expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free.[http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/greeley.htm] With the [[Emancipation Proclamation]] issued in two parts on [[September 22]], [[1862]] and [[January 1]], [[1863]], Lincoln made the abolition of slavery a goal of the war. Lincoln addresses the issue of his consistency (or lack thereof) between his earlier position and his later position on emancipation in an 1864 letter to [[Albert G. Hodges]][http://showcase.netins.net/web/creative/lincoln/speeches/hodges.htm] Lincoln is often credited with freeing enslaved [[African Americans]] with the [[Emancipation Proclamation]]. However, border states that still allowed slavery but were under Union control were exempt from the emancipation because they were not covered under any war measures. The proclamation on its first day, [[January 1]], [[1863]], freed only a few escaped slaves, but as Union armies advanced south more and more slaves were liberated until hundreds of thousands were freed (exactly how many is unknown). Lincoln signed the Proclamation as a wartime measure, insisting that only the outbreak of war gave constitutional power to the President to free slaves in states where it already existed. He later said: \"I never, in my life, felt more certain that I was doing right, than I do in signing this paper.\" The proclamation made abolishing slavery in the rebel states an official war goal and it became the impetus for the enactment of the [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|13th Amendment]] to the [[United States Constitution]] which abolished slavery; Lincoln was one of the main promoters of that amendment. Politically, the Emancipation Proclamation did much to help the Northern cause; Lincoln's strong [[abolitionist]] stand finally convinced the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] and other foreign countries that they could not support the [[Confederate States of America]]. This move remains one of the great seizures of private property by the federal government. Lincoln did not initially have as a goal making negroes equal under the law to whites. Lincoln excerpt from the [[Lincoln-Douglas debates of 1858]]: :I will say then that I am not, nor ever have been in favor of bringing about in any way the social and political equality of the white and black races [applause]--that I am not nor ever have been in favor of making voters or jurors of Negroes, nor of qualifying them to hold office, nor to intermarry with white people, and I will say in addition to this that there is physical difference between the white and black races which I believe will for ever forbid the two races living together on terms of social and political equality. And inasmuch as they cannot so live, while they do remain together, there must be the position of superior and inferior. I, as much as any other man, am in favor of having the superior position assigned to the white race. I say, upon the occasion, I do not perceive that because the white man is to have the superior position the black should be denied everything. [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/documents/documents_p2.cfm?doc=33] Lincoln had for some time been working on plans to set up [[Abraham Lincoln on slavery#Colonization|colonies]] in Africa and South America for the nearly 4 million newly freed slaves. He remarked upon colonization favorably in the Emancipation Proclamation, but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed. These attempts were in accordance with his earlier view that whites and blacks could never live together in complete harmony. ==Important domestic measures of Lincoln's first term== [[Image:Lincoln.png|thumb|right|While Lincoln is usually portrayed bearded, he first grew a beard in 1861 at the suggestion of 11-year-old [[Grace Bedell]].]] Lincoln believed in the Whig theory of the presidency, which left Congress to write the laws. He was anti-vescovian. He signed them, vetoing only bills that threatened his war powers. Thus he signed the [[Homestead Act]] in 1862, making available millions of acres of government-held land in the west for purchase at very low cost. The [[Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act]], also signed in 1862, provided government grants for [[agricultural universities]] in each state. The most important legislation involved money matters, including the first income tax and higher tariffs. Most important was the creation of the system of national banks by the [[National Banking Act]]s of 1863, 1864 and 1865. They allowed the creation of a strong national financial system. Lincoln sent a senior general to put down the \"[[Sioux_Uprising |Sioux Uprising]]\" of August 1862 in [[Minnesota]]. Presented with 303 death warrants for convicted [[Santee Dakota]] who had massacred innocent farmers, Lincoln affirmed 39 of these for execution (one was later reprieved). ==1864 election and second inauguration== After Union victories at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] and [[Battle of Chattanooga|Chattanooga]] in 1863, many in the North believed that victory was soon to come after Lincoln appointed [[Ulysses S. Grant|U.S. Grant]] General-in-Chief on [[March 12]], [[1864]]. Although no president since [[Andrew Jackson]] had been elected to a second term (and none since [[Martin Van Buren|Van Buren]] had been re-nominated), Lincoln's re-election was considered a certainty. However, when the spring campaigns, east and west, all turned into bloody stalemates, Northern morale dipped and Lincoln seemed less likely to be re-nominated. [[U.S. Treasury Secretary|Treasury Secretary]] [[Salmon P. Chase]] strongly desired the Republican nomination and was working hard to win it, while [[John Fremont]] was nominated by a breakoff group of radical Republicans, potentially taking away crucial votes in the November elections. Fearing he might lose the election, Lincoln wrote out and signed the following pledge, but did not show it to his cabinet, asking them each to sign the sealed envelope. Lincoln wrote: :This morning, as for some days past, it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re-elected. Then it will be my duty to so co-operate with the President elect, as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he can not possibly save it afterwards. The Democrats, hoping to make setbacks in the war a top campaign issue, waited until late summer to nominate a candidate. Their platform was heavily influenced by the [[Copperheads (politics)|Peace wing]] of the party, calling the war a \"failure,\" but their candidate, former General [[George McClellan]], was a [[War Democrats|War Democrat]], determined to prosecute the war until the Union was restored, although willing to compromise on all other issues, including slavery. McClellan's candidacy was soon undercut as on [[September 1]], just two days after the [[1864 Democratic National Convention|convention]], [[Battle of Atlanta|Atlanta]] was abandoned by the Confederate army. Coming on the heels of [[David Farragut|David Farragut's]] capture of [[Battle of Mobile Bay|Mobile Bay]] and followed by [[Phil Sheridan|Phil Sheridan's]] crushing victory over [[Jubal Anderson Early|Jubal Early's]] army at [[Battle of Cedar Creek|Cedar Creek]], it was now apparent that the tide had turned in favor of the Union and that Lincoln may be reelected despite the costs of the war. Still, Lincoln believed that he would win the [[U.S. Electoral College|electoral vote]] by only a slim margin, failing to give him the [[Mandate (politics)|mandate]] he'd need if he was to push his lenient [[reconstruction]] plan. To his surprise, Lincoln ended up winning all but two states, capturing 212 of 233 electoral votes. After Lincoln's election, on [[March 4]], [[1865]], he delivered his [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]], which was his favorite of all his speeches. At this time, a victory over the rebels was within sight, [[slavery]] had effectively ended, and Lincoln was looking to the future. :Fondly do we hope--fervently do we pray--that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away. Yet, if God wills that it continue, until all the wealth piled by the bond-man's two hundred and fifty years of unrequited toil shall be sunk, and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash, shall be paid by another drawn with the sword, as was said three thousand years ago, so still it must be said \"the judgments of the Lord, are true and righteous altogether\" :With malice toward none; with charity for all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work we are in; to bind up the nation's wounds; to care for him who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow, and his orphan--to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace, among ourselves, and with all nations. ==Civil War and reconstruction== ===Conducting the war effort=== The war was a source of constant frustration for the president, and it occupied nearly all of his time. Lincoln had a contentious relationship with General [[George B. McClellan]], who became general-in-chief of all the Union armies in the wake of the embarrassing Union defeat at the [[First Battle of Bull Run]] and after the retirement of [[Winfield Scott]] in late 1861. Lincoln wished to take an active part in planning the war strategy despite his inexperience in military affairs. Lincoln's strategic priorities were two-fold: first, to ensure that Washington, D.C., was well-defended; and second, to conduct an aggressive war effort in hopes of ending the war quickly and appeasing the Northern public and press, who pushed for an offensive war. McClellan, a youthful [[United States Military Academy|West Point]] graduate and railroad executive called back to military service, took a more cautious approach. McClellan took several months to plan and execute his [[Peninsula Campaign]], which involved capturing [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]] by moving the [[Army of the Potomac]] by boat to the [[Virginia Peninsula|peninsula]] between the [[James River (Virginia)|James]] and [[York River (Virginia)|York Rivers]]. McClellan's delay irritated Lincoln, as did McClellan's insistence that no troops were needed to defend Washington, D.C. Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan's troops to defend the capital, a decision McClellan blamed for the ultimate failure of his Peninsula Campaign. McClellan, a lifelong [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] who was temperamentally conservative, was relieved as general-in-chief after releasing his ''[[Harrison's Landing Letter]]'', where he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort. McClellan's letter incensed Radical Republicans, who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint fellow Republican [[John Pope (military officer)|John Pope]] as head of the new [[Army of Virginia]]. Pope complied with Lincoln's strategic desire for the Union to move towards Richmond from the north, thus guarding Washington, D.C. However, Pope was soundly defeated at the [[Second Battle of Bull Run]] during the summer of 1862, forcing the Army of the Potomac back into the defenses of Washington for a second time. Pope was sent to Minnesota to fight the [[Sioux]]. Panicked by Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]]'s invasion of [[Maryland]], Lincoln restored McClellan to command of all forces around Washington in time for the [[Battle of Antietam]] in September 1862. It was the Union victory in that battle that allowed Lincoln to release his Emancipation Proclamation. Lincoln relieved McClellan of command shortly after the 1862 midterm elections and appointed Republican [[Ambrose Burnside]] to head the Army of the Potomac, who promised to follow through on Lincoln's strategic vision for an aggressive offensive against Lee and Richmond. After Burnside was stunningly defeated at [[Battle of Fredericksburg|Fredericksburg]], [[Joseph Hooker]] was given command, despite his idle talk about becoming a military strong man. Hooker was routed by Lee at [[Battle of Chancellorsville|Chancellorsville]] in May 1863 and also relieved of command. After the Union victory at [[Battle of Gettysburg|Gettysburg]], [[George G. Meade | Meade's]] failure to pursue Lee, and months of inactivity for the Army of the Potomac, Lincoln decided to bring in a western general: General [[Ulysses S. Grant]]. He had a solid string of victories in the Western Theater, including [[Battle of Vicksburg|Vicksburg]] and [[Battle of Chattanooga III|Chattanooga]]. Earlier, reacting to criticism of Grant, Lincoln was quoted as saying, \"I cannot spare this man. He fights.\" Grant waged his bloody [[Overland Campaign]] in 1864, using a strategy of a [[war of attrition]], characterized by high Union losses at battles such as the [[Battle of the Wilderness|Wilderness]] and [[Battle of Cold Harbor|Cold Harbor]], but by proportionately higher losses in the Confederate army. Grant's aggressive campaign would eventually bottle up Lee in the [[Siege of Petersburg]] and result in the Union taking Richmond and bringing the war to a close in the spring of 1865. Lincoln authorized Grant to use a [[scorched earth]] approach to destroy the South's morale and economic ability to continue the war. This allowed Generals [[William Tecumseh Sherman]] and [[Philip Sheridan]] to destroy farms and towns in the [[Shenandoah Valley]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], and [[South Carolina]]. The damage in [[Sherman's March to the Sea]] through Georgia totaled in excess of $100 million. Lincoln had a star-crossed record as a military leader, possessing a keen understanding of strategic points (such as the [[Mississippi River]] and the fortress city of Vicksburg) and the importance of defeating the enemy's army, rather than simply capturing cities. However, he had little success in his efforts to motivate his generals to adopt his strategies. Eventually, he found in Grant a man who shared his vision of the war and was able to bring that vision to reality with his relentless pursuit of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters of war. Lincoln, perhaps reflecting his lack of military experience, developed a keen curiosity with military campaigning during the war. He spent hours at the [[United States War Department|War Department]] [[Telegraphy|telegraph]] office, reading dispatches from his generals through many a night. He frequently visited battle sites and seemed fascinated by watching scenes of war. During [[Jubal A. Early]]'s [[Battle of Fort Stevens|raid into Washington, D.C.]], in 1864, Lincoln had to be told to duck his head to avoid being shot observing the scenes of battle. ===Homefront=== Lincoln was more successful in giving the war meaning to Northern civilians through his oratorical skills. Despite his meager education and “backwoods” upbringing, Lincoln possessed an extraordinary command of the English language, as evidenced by the [[Gettysburg Address]], a speech dedicating a cemetery of Union soldiers from the [[Battle of Gettysburg]] that he delivered on November 19, 1863. While the featured speaker, orator [[Edward Everett]], spoke for two hours, Lincoln's few choice words resonated across the nation and across history, defying Lincoln's own prediction that \"the world will little note, nor long remember what we say here.\" Lincoln's [[Lincoln's second inaugural address|second inaugural address]] is also greatly admired and often quoted. In these speeches, Lincoln articulated better than any of his contemporaries the rationale behind the Union effort. During the Civil War, Lincoln exercised powers no previous president had wielded; he proclaimed a [[blockade]], suspended the writ of [[habeas corpus]], spent money without [[Congress of the United States|congressional]] authorization, and imprisoned thousands of accused Confederate sympathizers without trial. There is a fragment of uncorraborated evidence that Lincoln made contingency plans to arrest [[Chief Justice]] [[Roger Brooke Taney]], though the allegation remains unresolved and controversial (see the [[Taney Arrest Warrant]] controversy). The long war and the issue of emancipation appeared to be severely hampering his prospects and pessimists warned that defeat appeared likely. Lincoln ran under the Union party banner, composed of War Democrats and Republicans. General Grant was facing severe criticism for his conduct of the bloody [[Overland Campaign]] that summer and the seemingly endless [[Siege of Petersburg]]. However, the Union capture of the key railroad center of [[Atlanta, Georgia|Atlanta]] by Sherman's forces in September changed the situation dramatically and Lincoln was reelected. ===Reconstruction=== The [[reconstruction]] of the Union weighed heavy on the President's mind throughout the war effort. He was determined to take a course that would not permanently alienate the former Confederate states, and throughout the war Lincoln urged speedy elections under generous terms in areas behind Union lines. This irritated congressional Rep ublicans, who urged a more stringent Reconstruction policy. One of Lincoln's few vetoes during his term was of the [[Wade-Davis Bil]]l, an effort by congressional Republicans to impose harsher Reconstruction terms on the Confederate areas. Republicans in Congress retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from [[Louisiana]], [[Arkansas]], and [[Tennessee]] during the war under Lincoln's generous terms. \"Let 'em up easy,\" he told his assembled military leaders [[Ulysses S. Grant|Gen. Ulysses S. Grant]] (a future president), [[William Tecumseh Sherman|Gen. William T. Sherman]] and [[David Dixon Porter|Adm. David Dixon Porter]] in an 1865 meeting on the steamer ''River Queen''. When [[Richmond, Virginia|Richmond]], the Confederate capital, was at long last captured, Lincoln went there to make a public gesture of sitting at [[Jefferson Davis]]'s own desk, symbolically saying to the nation that the President of the United States held authority over the entire land. He was greeted at the city as  a conquering hero by freed slaves, whose sentiments were epitomized by one admirer's quote, \"I know I am free for I have seen the face of Father Abraham and have felt him.\" On [[April 9]], [[1865]], Confederate General [[Robert E. Lee]] surrendered at [[Appomattox Court House]] in [[Virginia]]. This left only [[Joseph Johnston]]'s forces in the East to deal with. Weeks later Johnston would defy Jefferson Davis and surrender his forces to Sherman. Of course, Lincoln would not survive to see the surrender of all Confederate forces; just five days after Lee surrendered, Lincoln was [[assassination|assassinated]]. He was the first President to be assassinated, and the third to die in office. ==Assassination== [[Image:Lincolnassassination.jpg|right|thumbnail|250px|The assassination of Abraham Lincoln. From left to right: [[Henry Rathbone]], [[Clara Harris]], Mary Todd Lincoln, Lincoln, and Booth.]] Lincoln had met frequently with Lt. Gen. [[Ulysses S. Grant]] as the war drew to a close. The two men planne d matters of reconstruction, and it was evident to all that they held each other in high regard. During their last meeting, on [[April 14]], [[1865]] ([[Good Friday]]), Lincoln invited Grant to a social engagement that evening. Grant declined (Grant's wife, [[Julia Dent Grant]], is said to have strongly disliked [[Mary Todd Lincoln]]). The President's eldest son, [[Robert Todd Lincoln]], also turned down the invitation. [[John Wilkes Booth]], a well-known actor and Southern sympathizer from [[Maryland]], heard that the president and Mrs. Lincoln, along with the Grants, would be attending [[Ford's Theatre]]. Having failed in a plot to kidnap Lincoln earlier, Booth informed his co-conspirators of his intention to kill Lincoln. Others were assigned to assassinate [[Vice-President]] [[Andrew Johnson]] and [[Secretary of State]] [[William Seward]]. Without his [[bodyguard]] [[Ward Hill Lamon]], to whom he related his famous [[dream]] of his own assassination, the Lincolns left to attend the play at Ford's  Theater. The play, ''[[Our American Cousin]]'', was a musical comedy by the British writer [[Tom Taylor]]. As Lincoln sat in his state box in the balcony, Booth crept up behind the President's box and waited for the funniest line of the play, hoping the laughter would cover the gunshot noise. On stage, actor Harry Hawk said the last words Lincoln would ever hear \"Well, I guess I know enough to turn you inside out, old gal—you sockdologizing old man-trap...\". When the laughter came Booth jumped into the box the president was in and aimed a single-shot, round-slug .44 [[caliber]] [[Deringer]] at his head, firing at point-blank range. The bullet entered behind Lincoln's left ear and lodged behind his right eyeball. Major [[Henry Rathbone]], who was present in the Presidential Box, momentarily grappled with Booth but was severely stabbed and slashed by the assassin. It was believed that Booth then shouted \"''[[Sic semper tyrannis]]!''\" (Latin: \"Thus always to tyrants,\" the state motto of Virginia; so me accounts say he added \"The South is avenged!\") and jumped from the balcony to the stage below, breaking his leg. Despite his injury, Booth managed to limp to his horse and to make his escape. As Booth fled from the theater, a young physician, Dr. [[Charles Leale]], made his way through the audience to Lincoln's box. Leale quickly assessed the wound as mortal. The President was taken across the street from the theater to the [[Petersen House]], where he lay in a coma for nine hours before he expired. Several physicians attended Lincoln, including U.S. Army Surgeon General Joseph K. Barnes of the Army Medical Museum. Using a probe, Barnes located some fragments of Lincoln's skull and the ball lodged 6 inches inside his brain. Lincoln, who never regained consciousness, was officially pronounced dead at 7:22 A.M. the next morning, April 15, 1865. Upon his death, Secretary of War [[Edwin Stanton]] lamented \"now he belongs to the ages.\" After Lincoln's body was returned to the [[White House]], his body was prepared for his \"lying in state\" in the [[East Room]]. The Army Medical Museum, now named the National Museum of Health and Medicine, has retained in its collection since the time of Lincolns's death, several artifacts relating to the assassination. Currently on display in the museum are the bullet that was fired from the Deringer pistol, ending Lincoln's life, the probe use by Barnes, pieces of his skull and hair and the surgeon's cuff, stained with Lincoln's blood. The museum can be found at [www.nmhm.washingtondc.museum] In 2004 a newly discovered [http://www.geocities.com/cathytreks/lincolnatpeace2.jpg photograph] from the estate of photographer, artist and engraver [[John B. Bachelder]], purportedly showing Lincoln but a few hours post mortem, was published in [[Lloyd Ostendorf]]'s book ''Lincoln's Photographs: A Complete Album'' (Rockywood Press, Dayton, Ohio, 2004). If authentic, it is the only immediately post mortem photograph of the late president to be taken by Bachelder. Secretary Seward, who was also attacked that night, did survive. He was not told of Lincoln's assassination, but on Monday announced from his bed that \"the President is dead,\" after seeing the flag at half-staff over the War Department from his window, and concluding that since Lincoln had neither come to see how he was or sent someone to inquire that he must be dead. Booth was hunted down by a military [[posse]] twelve days later and shot by [[Boston Corbett]], near [[Bowling Green]], [[Virginia]]. Four co-conspirators were convicted and hanged, while three others were given life sentences. [[Image:LincolnTrain.jpeg|right|thumbnail|250px|Lincoln's funeral train carried his remains, as well as 300 mourners and the casket of his son William, 1,654 miles to Illinois.]] Lincoln's body was carried by train in a grand funeral procession through several states on its way back to Illinois. The nation mourned a man whom many viewed as the savior of the United States. He was buried in [[Oak Ridge Cemetery]] in Springfield, where a 177 foot (54 m) tall granite tomb surmounted with several bronze statues of Lincoln was constructed by 1874. To prevent repeated attempts to steal Lincoln's body and hold it for ransom, Robert Todd Lincoln had Lincoln exhumed and reinterred in concrete several feet thick on [[September 26]], [[1901]]. {{see|Abraham Lincoln's burial and exhumation}} ==Legacy and memorials== Lincoln's death made the President a [[martyr]] to many. Today he is perhaps America's second most famous and beloved President after [[George Washington]]. Repeated polls of historians have ranked Lincoln as among the [[historical rankings of U.S. Presidents|greatest presidents in U.S. history]]. Among contemporary admirers, Lincoln is usually seen as a figure who personifies classical values of honesty, integrity, as well as respect for individual and minority rights, and human freedom in general. Many American organizations of all purposes and agendas continue to cite his name and image, with interests ranging from the [[gay rights]] group [[Log Cabin Republicans]] to the [[insurance]] corporation [[Lincoln Financial Group|Lincoln Financial]]. The [[Lincoln automobile]] is also named after him. [[Image:Lincoln_statue.jpg|thumbnail|200px|[[Daniel Chester French]]'s seated ''Lincoln'' faces the [[National Mall]] to the east.]] Over the years Lincoln has been memorialized in many city names, notably the [[Lincoln, Nebraska|capital of Nebraska]]; with the [[Lincoln Memorial]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] (''pictured, right''); on the U.S. [[U.S. five dollar bill|$5 bill]] and the [[Penny (U.S. coin)|1 cent coin]] (Illinois is the primary opponent to the removal of the penny from circulation); and as part of the [[Mount Rushmore National Memorial]]. [[Lincoln's Tomb]], [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in [[Springfield, Illinois|Springfield]], [[New Salem (Menard County), Illinois|New Salem, Illinois]] (a reconstruction of Lincoln's early adult hometown), [[Ford's Theater]] and Petersen House are all preserved as museums. The [[List of U.S. state nicknames|state nickname]] for [[Illinois]] is ''Land of Lincoln''. [[Counties of the United States|Counties]] in 18 [[U.S. state]]s ([[Lincoln County, Arkansas|Arkansas]], [[Lincoln County, Colorado|Colorado]], [[Lincoln County, Idaho|Idaho]], [[Lincoln County, Kansas|Kansas]], [[Lincoln County, Minnesota|Minnesota]], [[Lincoln County, Mississippi|Mississippi]], [[Lincoln County, Montana|Montana]], [[Lincoln County, Nebraska|Nebraska]], [[Lincoln County, Nevada|Nevada]], [[Lincoln County, New Mexico|New Mexico]], [[Lincoln County, Oklahoma|Oklahoma]], [[Lincoln County, Oregon|Oregon]], [[Lincoln County, South Dakota|South Dakota]], [[Lincoln County, Tennessee|Tennessee]], [[Lincoln County, West Virginia|West Virginia]], [[Lincoln County, Washington|Washington]], [[Lincoln County, Wisconsin|Wisconsin]], and [[Lincoln County, Wyoming|Wyoming]]) are named after Lincoln. On [[February 12]], [[1892]], Abraham Lincoln's birthday was declared to be a federal [[holiday]] in the United States, although in 1971 it was combined with Washington's birthday in the form of [[President's Day]]. February 12 is still observed as a separate legal holiday in many states, including Illinois. Lincoln's birthplace and family home are national historic memorials: [[Abraham Lincoln Birthplace National Historic Site]] in [[Hodgenville, Kentucky]] and [[Lincoln Home National Historic Site]] in [[Springfield, Illinois]]. The [[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] is also in Springfield. The [[Abraham Lincoln National Cemetery]] is located in [[Elwood, Illinois]]. Statues of Lincoln can be found in other countries. In [[Ciudad Juárez]], [[Chihuahua]], [[Mexico]], is a 13-foot high bronze statue, a gift from the United States, dedicated in 1966 by President [[Lyndon B. Johnson]]. The U.S. received a statue of [[Benito Juárez]] in exchange, which is in Washington, D.C. Juárez and Lincoln exchanged friendly letters, and Mexico remembers Lincoln's opposition to the [[Mexican-American War]]. There is also a statue in [[Tijuana]], Mexico, showing Lincoln standing and destroying the chains of slavery. There are at least three statues of Lincoln in the [[United Kingdom]]—one in [[London]] by [[Augustus St. Gaudens]], one in [[Manchester]] by [[George Grey Barnard]] and another in [[Edinburgh]] by [[George Bissell (industrialist)|George Bissell]]. The [[ballistic missile]] [[submarine]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (SSBN-602)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (SSBN-602)]] and the [[aircraft carrier]] [[USS Abraham Lincoln (CVN-72)|''Abraham Lincoln'' (CVN-72)]] were named in his honor. Also, the [[Liberty ship]], [[SS Nancy Hanks|SS ''Nancy Hanks'']] was named to honor his mother. Director [[Steven Spielberg]] is currently planning a movie on Lincoln with [[Liam Neeson]] in the leading role. The American [[Walt Disney Parks and Resorts|Disney theme parks]] feature an [[Audio-Animatronics]] Abraham Lincoln in the show [[Great Moments with Mr. Lincoln]] and the Hall of Presidents. In a recent public vote entitled \"[[The Greatest American]],\" Lincoln placed second (placing first was another great son of Illinois, [[Ronald Reagan]]). To this day, comedians generally avoid jokes about Lincoln because audiences do not usually appreciate them. Humorous shorts featured on the [[Happy Tree Friends]] and Friends cartoon on G4TV portray Lincoln as someone who drinks too much. The shorts are called \"Hard Drinkin' Lincoln,\" and at the end of every episode, Boothe is always shooting Abe. ==Trivia== * Lincoln stood 6'3 3/4\" (192.4 cm) tall and thus was the tallest president in U.S. history, just edging out [[Lyndon Johnson]] at 6'3 1/2\" (191.8 cm). * He was born on the same day as [[Charles Darwin]]. * The last surviving self-described witness to Lincoln's assassination was [[Samuel J. Seymour]] (~1860–[[April 14]], [[1956]]), who appeared two months before his death at age 96 on the [[CBS]]-TV [[quiz show]] ''[[I've Got a Secret]]''. He said that as a five-year-old he had thought at first that he, himself, had been shot because his nurse, trying to fix a torn place in his blouse, stuck him with a pin at the moment of the gun's discharge. * According to legend, Lincoln was referred to as \"two-faced\" by his opponent in the 1858 [[Senate]] election, [[Stephen A. Douglas|Stephen Douglas]]. Upon hearing about this Lincoln jokingly replied, \"If I had another face to wear, do you really think I would be wearing this one?\" * According to legend, Lincoln also said, as a young man, on his appearance one day when looking in the mirror: \"It's a fact, Abe! You are the ugliest man in the world. If ever I see a man uglier than you, I'm going to shoot him on the spot!\" It would no doubt, he thought, be an act of mercy. * Based on written descriptions of Lincoln, including the observations that he was much taller than most men of his day and had long limbs, an abnormally-shaped chest, and loose or lax joints, it has been conjectured since the 1960s that Lincoln may have suffered from [[Marfan syndrome]]. *Lincoln was known to have a case of [[depression]]. During his time in New Salem, Illinois, his fiancee died, and that triggered his depression. His close friends watched over him to make sure he did not commit suicide. He also suffered from nightmares during his term in the [[White House]]. His depression got so severe, he had to hold a cabinet meeting from his bed. ==Presidential appointments== ===Cabinet=== Lincoln was known for appointing his enemies and political rivals to high positions in his Cabinet. Not only did he use great political skill in reducing potential political opposition but he felt he was appointing the best qualified person for the good of the country. {| class=\"wikitable\" |- ! Office !! Name !! Term |- | [[President of the United States|President]] || '''[[Abraham Lincoln]]''' || 1861–1865 |- | [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]] || '''[[Hannibal Hamlin]]''' || 1861–1865 |- |   || '''[[Andrew Johnson]]''' || 1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of State|Secretary of State]] || '''[[William H. Seward]]''' || 1861–1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of the Treasury|Secretary of the Treasury]] || '''[[Salmon P. Chase]]''' || 1861–1864 |- |   || '''[[William P. Fessenden]]''' || 1864–1865 |- |   || '''[[Hugh McCulloch]]''' || 1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of War|Secretary of War]] || '''[[Simon Cameron]]''' || 1861–1862 |- |   || '''[[Edwin M. Stanton]]''' || 1862–1865 |- | [[Attorney General of the United States|Attorney General]] || '''[[Edward Bates]]''' || 1861–1864 |- |   || '''[[James Speed]]'''||align=\"left\"|1864–1865 |- | [[Postmaster General of the United States|Postmaster General]] || '''[[Horatio King]]''' || 1861 |- |   || '''[[Montgomery Blair]]''' || 1861–1864 |- |   || '''[[William Dennison (Ohio governor)|William Dennison]]''' || 1864–1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of the Navy|Secretary of the Navy]] || '''[[Gideon Welles]]''' || 1861–1865 |- | [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]] || '''[[Caleb B. Smith]]''' || 1861–1863 |- |   || '''[[John P. Usher]]''' || 1863–1865 |}
===Supreme Court=== Lincoln appointed the following Justices to the [[Supreme Court of the United States]]: *[[Noah Haynes Swayne]] - 1862 *[[Samuel Freeman Miller]] - 1862 *[[David Davis (senator)|David Davis]] - 1862 *[[Stephen Johnson Field]] - 1863 *[[Salmon P. Chase]] - [[Chief Justice of the United States|Chief Justice]] - 1864 ==Major presidential acts== ===Involvement as President-elect=== *[[Morrill tariff|Morrill Tariff of 1861]] *[[Corwin amendment|Corwin Amendment]] ===Enacted as President=== *Signed [[Revenue Act of 1861]] *Signed [[Homestead Act]] *Signed [[Morrill Act|Morill Land-Grant College Act]] *Signed [[Internal Revenue Act of 1862]] *Established [[Bureau of Agriculture]] (1862) *Signed [[National Banking Act|National Banking Act of 1863]] *Signed [[Internal Revenue Act of 1864]] ==States admitted to the Union== *[[West Virginia]] – [[June 20]], [[1863]] *[[Nevada]] – [[October 31]], [[1864]] ==See also== *[[Origins of the American Civil War]] *[[Lincoln-Kennedy coincidences]] *[[List of U.S. Presidential religious affiliations]] *[[World Almanac's Ten Most Influential People of the Second Millennium]] * Movies: ''[[D.W. Griffith's 'Abraham Lincoln']]'', ''[[The Dramatic Life of Abraham Lincoln]]'' *[[Abraham Lincoln Presidential Library and Museum]] *[[Media:1850_census_Lincoln.gif|1850 US Census]] with Abraham Lincoln in [[Springfield, Illinois]] *[[Media:1860_census_Lincoln.gif|1860 US Census]] with Abraham Lincoln in [[Springfield, Illinois]] ==References== ===Scholarly secondary sources: Biographies=== *''Lincoln'' by [[David Herbert Donald]] (1999) ISBN 068482535X the best one-volume scholarly biography. *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=103538783 ''Abraham Lincoln and Civil War America: A Biography'' by William E. Gienapp (2002)], 200 pages; good biography by scholar *''Team of Rivals: The Political Genius of Abraham Lincoln'' by Doris Kearns Goodwin ISBN 0684824906 (2005). Best-selling interpretation of Lincoln and his cabinet. For a critical evaluation of this biography, see the [[Christian Century]] review by a Lincoln scholar with a background in American religious history: http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1058/is_24_122/ai_n15898300#continue *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=99466893 ''Abraham Lincoln: Redeemer President'' by Allen C. Guelzo (1999)] *''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890) by [[John Hay]] & [[John George Nicolay]]; online at [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] 10 volumes in all; this is one of the great scholarly multivolume lives, written by AL's top aides. *''The Real Abraham Lincoln'' by Reinhard H Luthin (1960). *''The Abraham Lincoln Encyclopedia'' by Mark E. Neely (1984). * ''The Last Best Hope of Earth: Abraham Lincoln and the Promise of America'' by Mark E. Neely (1993) * ''With Malice Toward None: The Life of Abraham Lincoln'' by Stephen B. Oates (1994). *''The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln'' (1994) comprehensive study by Philip S. Paludan. *''Lincoln's War: The Untold Story of America's Greatest President as Commander-in-Chief'' by Geoffrey Perret ISBN 0375507388. A popular history. *''Lincoln the President'' by James G. Randall (4 vol., 1945–55; reprint 2000.) **[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5993790 ''Mr. Lincoln'' excerpts ed. by Richard N. Current (1957)] *''Abraham Lincoln: The Prairie Years'' (2 vol 1926); ''The War Years'' (4 vol 1939) biography by [[Carl Sandburg]]. Pulitzer Prize *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=25051697 ''Abraham Lincoln: A Biography'' by Benjamin P. Thomas; (1952)]; well-regarded biography of 500 pages ===Scholarly secondary sources: Specialty topics=== *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=102075782 Baker, Jean H. ''Mary Todd Lincoln: A Biography'' (1987)] *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=53306007 Belz, Herman. ''Abraham Lincoln, Constitutionalism, and Equal Rights in the Civil War Era'' (1998)] *Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln and the Economics of the American Dream'' (1994). *Boritt, Gabor S. ''Lincoln the War President'' (1994). *Boritt, Gabor S., ed. ''The Historian's Lincoln.'' Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1988. *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=978110 Bruce, Robert V. ''Lincoln and the Tools of War'' (1956)] *Donald, David Herbert. ''Lincoln Reconsidered: Essays on the Civil War Era'' (1960). *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=90104191 Foner, Eric. ''Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party before the Civil War'' (1970)] *Harris, William C. ''With Charity for All: Lincoln and the Restoration of the Union'' (1997). *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=790159 Hendrick, Burton J. ''Lincoln's War Cabinet'' (1946)] *Hofstadter, Richard. ''The American Political Tradition: And the Men Who Made It'' (1948) ch 5: \"Abraham Lincoln and the Self-MAde Myth\". *Holzer, Harold. ''Lincoln at Cooper Union: The Speech That Made Abraham Lincoln President'' (2004). *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=62452397 McPherson, James M. ''Abraham Lincoln and the Second American Revolution'' (1992)] *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=64327148 McPherson, James M. ''Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era'' (1988)], standard scholarly history of era; Pulitzer Prize *Morgenthau, Hans J., and David Hein. ''Essays on Lincoln's Faith and Politics''. Lanham, MD: University Press of America for the White Burkett Miller Center of Public Affairs at the University of Virginia, 1983. *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=79055694 Neely, Mark E. ''The Fate of Liberty: Abraham Lincoln and Civil Liberties'' (1992)] Pulitzer Prize *Paludan, Philip S. ''The Presidency of Abraham Lincoln'' (1994) comprehensive study *''Lincoln in American Memory'' by Merrill D. Peterson, (1994). *Randall, James G. ''Lincoln the Liberal Statesman'' (1947). *[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101573920 Richardson, Heather Cox. ''The Greatest Nation of the Earth: Republican Economic Policies during the Civil War'' (1997)] *''Lincoln's Melancholy: How Depression Challenged a President and Fueled His Greatness'' by Joshua Wolf Shenk ISBN 0618551166 *''The Intimate World of Abraham Lincoln'' by C. A. Tripp ISBN 0743266390 *''Lincoln'' by [[Gore Vidal]] ISBN 0375708766, a novel. *''Lincoln and His Generals'' by T. Harry Williams (1967). *''Lincoln at Gettysburg: The Words That Remade America'' by Garry Wills ISBN 0671867423 *''Honor's Voice: The Transformation of Abraham Lincoln'' by Douglas L. Wilson (1999). ===Lincoln in art and popular culture=== * Bullard. F. Lauriston, ''Lincoln in Marble and Bronze'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey 1952 * Mead, Fanklin B., ''Heroic Statues in Bronze of Abraham Lincoln: Introducing The Hoosier Youth by [[Paul Manship]]'', The Lincoln National Life Foundation, Fort Wayne, Indiana 1932 * Moffatt, Frederick C., ''Errant Bronzes: [[George Grey Barnard]]'s Statues of Abraham Lincoln'', University of Deleware Press, Newark , DE 1998 * Murry, Freeman Henry Morris, ''Emancipation anf the Freed in American Sculpture'', Books For Libraries Press, the Black Heritage Library Collection, Freeport, NY 1972 - originally published in 1916 * Petz, Weldon, ''Michigan's Monumental Tributes to Abraham Lincoln'', Historical Society of Michigan 1987 * Redway, Maurine Whorton and Dorothy Kendall Bracken, ''Marks of Lincoln on Our Land''. Hastings House, Publishers, New York 1957 * Savage, Kirk, ''Standing Soldiers, Kneeling Slaves: Race War and Monument in Nineteenth Century America'', Princeton University Press, Princeton New Jersey 1997 * Tice, George, ''Lincoln'', Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey 1984 ===Primary Sources=== * Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln'' 9 vols. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers Univ. Press, 1953-55), the standard edition. * [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=16235916 Basler, Roy P. ed. ''Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings'' (1946)] excellent short edition. * !Lincoln, Abraham. ''Lincoln: Speeches and Writings'' 2 vol Library of America edition, (1989). * Lincoln, Abraham. ''The Life and Writings of Abraham Lincoln'' (Modern Library Classics ed by Philip Van Doren Stern) (2000). *[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress] (1850-1865) ==External links== {{commons|Abraham Lincoln}} {{Wikisource author}}{{wikiquote}} *[http://www.abrahamlincoln.org/ The Lincoln Institute] *[http://www.rootdig.com/abraham_lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln in United States Census Records] *[http://home.att.net/~rjnorton/Lincoln77.html Especially for Students: An Overview of Abraham Lincoln's Life] *[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/alhome.html Mr. Lincoln's Virtual Library] *[http://www.quotesandpoem.com/literature/ListofLiteraryWorks/Lincoln__Abraham Speeches and Quotes by Abraham Lincoln] *[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/alhtml/malhome.html Abraham Lincoln Papers at the Library of Congress] (1850-1865) *[http://www.loc.gov/rr/pr"ogram/bib/prespoetry/al.html Poetry written by Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.mybigadventure.com/index.php?action=Stats&stat=Memorials&date=20041027.3&page=5 Lincoln Memorial Tour] - My Big Adventure (33 Images) *[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln2.html Abraham Lincoln Research Site] *[http://www.abrahamlincolnonline.org Abraham Lincoln Online] *[http://www.hti.umich.edu/l/lincoln/ The Collected Works of Abraham Lincoln] *[http://deptorg.knox.edu/lincolnstudies/ Lincoln Studies Center at Knox College] *[http://lenbernstein.com/Pages/EgoJustice.html Discussion of John Drinkwater's play ''Abraham Lincoln''] *[http://www.sonofthesouth.net/prod01.htm Original 1860's Harper's Weekly Images and News on Abraham Lincoln] *[http://dev.stg.brown.edu/projects/lincoln/ The Lincoln Log: A Daily Chronology of the Life of Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.nps.gov/linc/ Lincoln Memorial] Washington, DC *[http://www.thelincolnmuseum.org The Lincoln Museum] Fort Wayne, Indiana *[http://www.gilderlehrman.org/historians/f#ellowship2.html The Lincoln Prize] A national book award sponsored by The Gilder Lehrman Institute of American History and the Civil War Institute at Gettysburg College *[http://members.aol.com/RVSNorton/Lincoln.html Abraham Lincoln's Assassination] *[http://www.lincolnherald.com/1970articleSubstitute.html John Summerfield Staples, President Lincoln's \"Substitute\"] *[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?Sect1=PTO1&Sect2=HITOFF&d=PALL&p=1&u=/netahtml/srchnum.htm&r=1&f=G&l=50&s1=6469.WKU.&OS=PN/6469&RS=PN/6469 US6469] Patent -- ''Manner of Buoying Vessels'' -- A. Lincoln -- 1849 *[http://www.lewrockwell.com/orig2/lincoln-arch.html King Lincoln] (an archive of articles on Lincoln) *[http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/al16.html White House Biography] *[http://www.nps.gov/abli/ National Park Service Abraham Lincoln birthplace] (includes good early history) *Hoard Historical Museum [http://www.hoardmuseum.org/] in [[Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin]] with Lincoln Library *[http://www.williamapercy.com$/pub-LincolnIntimate.htm On the Question of Lincoln's Sexuality] *[http://www.doctorzebra.com/prez/g16.htm Medical and Health history of Abraham Lincoln] *[http://www.worldofbiography.com/9052%2DAbraham%20Lincoln/ Biography] (World of Biography) ==Neoconfederate Criticisms of Lincoln== *[http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo77.html ''Lincolnian Totalitarians''] by Thomas J. DiLorenzo *[http://www.lewrockwell.com/dilorenzo/dilorenzo44.html ''Let's put myths to rest''] by Thomas J. DiLorenzo *''The Real Lincoln'' by [[Thomas DiLorenzo]] ISBN 0761526463, a stinging neo-Confederate attack on Lincoln as evil. ==Documents at [[Project Gutenberg]]== ===''by'' Abraham Lincoln=== ====Speeches and addresses==== *{{gutenberg author| id=Abraham+Lincoln | name=Abraham Lincoln}} *{{gutenberg | no=4 | name=Gettysburg Address}} *{{gutenberg | no=9 | name=Abraham Lincoln's First Inaugural Address}} *{{gutenberg | no=8 | name=Abraham Lincoln's Second Inaugural Address}} *{{gutenberg | no=8110 | name=Lincoln Lett%ers}} *{{gutenberg | no=14721 | name=Speeches and Letters of Abraham Lincoln, 1832-1865}} *{{gutenberg | no=5024 | name=State of the Union Addresses}} ====The Writings of Abraham Lincoln==== *{{gutenberg | no=2653 | name=Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 1: 1832-1843}} *{{gutenberg | no=2654 | name=Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 2: 1843-1858}} *{{gutenberg | no=2655 | name=Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 3: the Lincoln-Douglas debates}} *{{gutenberg | no=2656 | name=Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 4: the Lincoln-Douglas debates}} *{{gutenberg | no=2657 | name=Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 5: 1858-1862}} *{{gutenberg | no=2658 | name=Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 6: 1862-1863}} *{{gutenberg | no=2659 | name=Writings of Abraham Lincoln, the - Volume 7: 1863-1865}} ====Miscellany==== *{{gutenberg | no=12462 | name=A Compilation of the Messages and Papers of the Presidents: Volume 6, part 1: Abraham Lincoln}} *{{gutenberg | no=2517 | name=Lincoln'&s Yarns and Stories}} ===''about'' Lincoln=== *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6812 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11708 Volume 2] of ''Abraham Lincoln: a History'' (1890) by [[John Hay]] (1835 to 1905) & [[John George Nicolay]] (1832 to 1901) *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1815 eText of ''The Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1907) by Nicolay, Helen (1866 to 1954) *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/6811 eText of ''The Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1901) by Henry Ketcham *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12800 Volume 1] and [http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/12801 Volume 2] of ''Abraham Lincoln'' (1899) by John T. Morse *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/14004 eText of ''The Every-day Life of Abraham Lincoln''] (1913) by Francis Fisher Browne *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/11728 eText of ''Abraham Lincoln: The People's Leader in the Struggle for National Existence''] (1909) by George Haven Putnam, Litt. D. *[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/1713 eText of ''Lincoln's Personal Life''] (1922) by Natha'niel W. Stephenson {{start box}} {{succession box | title=[[U.S. Congressional Delegations from Illinois|U.S. Congressman from the 7th District of Illinois]]| before=[[John Henry (Illinois politician)|John Henry]]| after=[[Thomas Langrell Harris]]| years=1847 – 1849}} {{succession box | before=[[John C. Frémont]] | title=[[List of United States Republican Party presidential tickets|Republican Party presidential candidate]]| years=[[U.S. presidential election, 1860|1860]] (won), [[U.S. presidential election, 1864|1864]] (won) | after=[[Ulysses S. Grant]]}} {{succession box | before=[[James Buchanan]] | title=[[President of the United States]] | years=[[March 4]], [[1861]] – [[April 15]], [[1865]]| after=[[Andrew Johnson]]}} {{end box}} {{start box}} {{USpresidents | before=[[James Buchanan|Buchanan]] | after=[[Andrew Johnson|A. Johnson]]| years=1861 to 1865}} {{end box}} {{USRepPresNominees}} {{Link FA|de}} [[Category:1809 births|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:1865 deaths|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Abraham Lincoln| ]] [[Category:American Civil War people|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:American lawyers|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Assassinated politicians|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Autodidacts|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Cat lovers|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Firearm deaths|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Members of the Illinois House of Representatives|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Murder victims|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:People from Kentucky|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Presidents of the United States|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:U.S. Army officers|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:U.S. Representatives from Illinois|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:U.S. Republican Party presidential nominees|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[Category:Welsh-Americans|Lincoln, Abraham]] [[ar:أبراهام لينكولن]] [[bg:Ейбрахъм Линкълн]] [[bs:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ca:Abraham Lincoln]] [[cs:Abraham Lincoln]] [[cy:Abraham Lincoln]] [[da:Abraham Lincoln]] [[de:Abraham Lincoln]] [[eo:Abraham LINCOLN]] [[es:Abraham Lincoln]] [[et:Abraham Lincoln]] [[fi:Abraham Lincoln]] [[fr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ga:Abraham Lincoln]] [[gl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[he:אברהם לינקולן]] [[hr:Abraham Lincoln]] [[id:Abraham Lincoln]] [[it:Abramo Lincoln]] [[ja:エイブラハム・リンカーン]] [[ko:에이브러햄 링컨]] [[mk:Абрахам Линколн]] [[nl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[nn:Abraham Lincoln]] [[no:Abraham Lincoln]] [[pl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[pt:Abraham Lincoln]] [[ru:Линкольн, Авраам]] [[scn:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sh:Abraham Lincoln]] [[simple:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sk:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sl:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sq:Abraham Lincoln]] [[sr:Абрахам Линколн]] [[sv:Abraham Lincoln]] [[th:อับราฮัม ลินคอล์น]] [[vi:Abraham Lincoln]] [[zh:亚伯拉罕·林肯]]utf-8 !, c!@jwDI#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor]]utf-87ieDH#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Actress]]utf-85haDG#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Actor]]utf-87geDF#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Picture]]utf-8f3DE#REDIRECT [[Actor]]utf-8IeDD: '' ''[[An American in Paris (film)|An American In Paris]]'' is also a 1951 film musical starriSdDC[[Image:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|right|thumb|300px|Aristotle, [[marble]] copy of [[bronze]] by [[Lysippos]]. [[Louvre Museum]].]] '''Aristotle''' ([[Greek language|Greek]]: {{polytonic|Αριστοτέλης}} Aristotelēs [[384 BC]] – [[March 7]], [[322 BC]]) was an [[ancient Greek]] [[philoso*^c/DB:''For other uses of the name Abraham Lincoln, see [[Abraham Lincoln (disambiguation)]]'' {{Infobox_President | name=Abraham Lincoln | nationality=American | image=Lincoln.jpg | order=16th President | term_start=[[March 4]], [[1861]] | term_end=[[April 15]], [[1865]] | predecessor=+pher]], student of [[Plato]] and teacher of [[Alexander the Great]]. He wrote many books about [[physics]], [[poetry]], [[zoology]], [[logic]], [[rhetoric]], [[government]], and [[biology]]. Aristotle, along with [[Plato]] and [[Socrates]], is generally considered one of the most influential [[Ancient philosophy|ancient Greek philosophers]] in [[Western world|Western]] thought. They transformed [[Presocratic]] [[Greek philosophy]] into the foundations of [[Western philosophy]] as we know it. The writings of Plato and Aristotle form the core of [[Ancient philosophy]]. Aristotle placed much more value on knowledge gained from the senses and would correspondingly be better classed among modern [[empiricist]]s (see [[materialism]] and [[empiricism]]). He also achieved a \"grounding\" of dialectic in the Topics by allowing interlocutors to begin from commonly held beliefs (''[[Endoxa]]''); his goal being non-contradiction rather than [[Truth]]. He set the stage for what would eventually develop into the [[sc,ientific method]] centuries later. Although he wrote dialogues early in his career, no more than fragments of these have survived. The works of Aristotle that still exist today are in [[treatise]] form and were, for the most part, unpublished texts. These were probably lecture notes or texts used by his students, and were almost certainly revised repeatedly over the course of years. As a result, these works tend to be eclectic, dense and difficult to read. Among the most important ones are ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''Metaphysics'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[De Anima]] (On the Soul)'' and ''[[Poetics]]''. These works, although connected in many fundamental ways, are very different in both style and substance. Aristotle is known for being one of the few figures in history who studied almost every subject possible at the time. In science, Aristotle studied [[anatomy]], [[astronomy]], [[economics]], [[embryology]], [[geography]], [[geology]], [[meteoro-logy]], [[physics]], and [[zoology]]. In philosophy, Aristotle wrote on [[aesthetics]], [[ethics]], [[government]], [[metaphysics]], [[politics]], [[psychology]], [[rhetoric]] and [[theology]]. He also dealt with [[education]], foreign customs, [[literature]] and [[poetry]]. His combined works practically constitute an [[encyclopedia]] of Greek knowledge. == Biography == ===Early life and studies at the Academy=== [[Image:Bust of Aristotle.jpg|thumb|A [[bust (sculpture)|bust]] of Aristotle is a nearly ubiquitous ornament in places of high culture in the [[Western world|West]].]] Aristotle was born at [[Stageira]], a [[apoikia|colony]] of [[Andros]] on the [[Macedon]]ian peninsula of [[Chalcidice]] in [[384 BC]]. His father, Nicomachus, was court physician to King [[Amyntas III of Macedon]]. It is believed that Aristotle's ancestors held this position under various kings of the Macedons. As such, Aristotle's early education would probably have consisted of instruction in [[medicine]] and [[biology]] from. his father. About his mother, Phaestis, little is known. It is known that she died early in Aristotle's life. When Nicomachus also died, in Aristotle's tenth year, he was left an [[orphan]] and placed under the guardianship of his uncle, [[Proxenus of Atarneus]]. He taught Aristotle [[Greek language|Greek]], [[rhetoric]], and [[poetry]] (O'Connor ''et al.'', [[2004]]). Aristotle was probably influenced by his father's medical knowledge; when he went to [[Athens]] at the age of 18, he was likely already trained in the investigation of natural phenomena. From the age of 18 to 37 Aristotle remained in Athens as a pupil of [[Plato]] and distinguished himself at the ''[[Academy]]''. The relations between Plato and Aristotle have formed the subject of various legends, many of which depict Aristotle unfavourably. No doubt there were divergences of opinion between Plato, who took his stand on sublime, idealistic principles, and Aristotle, who even at that time showed a preference for the investigation of the fa/cts and laws of the physical world. It is also probable that Plato suggested that Aristotle needed restraining rather than encouragement, but not that there was an open breach of friendship. In fact, Aristotle's conduct after the death of Plato, his continued association with [[Xenocrates]] and other [[Platonists]], and his allusions in his writings to Plato's doctrines prove that while there were conflicts of opinion between Plato and Aristotle, there was no lack of cordial appreciation or mutual forbearance. Besides this, the legends that reflect Aristotle unfavourably are traceable to the [[Epicureans]], who were known as slanderers. If such legends were circulated widely by [[patristic]] writers such as [[Justin Martyr]] and [[Gregory Nazianzen]], the reason lies in the exaggerated esteem Aristotle was held in by the early [[Christianity|Christian]] [[heretic]]s, not in any well-grounded historical tradition. ===Aristotle as philosopher and tutor=== After the death of Plato ([[347 BC]]), Aristotle wa0s considered as the next head of the Academy, a post that was eventually awarded to Plato's nephew. Aristotle then went with Xenocrates to the court of [[Hermias]], ruler of [[Atarneus]] in [[Asia Minor]], and married his niece and adopted daughter, Pythia. In [[344 BC]], Hermias was murdered in a rebellion, and Aristotle went with his family to [[Mytilene]]. It is also reported that he stopped on [[Lesbos]] and briefly conducted biological research. Then, one or two years later, he was summoned to Pella, the Macedonian capital, by King [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor of [[Alexander the Great]], who was then 13. [[Plutarch]] wrote that Aristotle not only imparted to Alexander a knowledge of ethics and politics, but also of the most profound secrets of philosophy. We have much proof that Alexander profited by contact with the philosopher, and that Aristotle made prudent and beneficial use of his influence over the young prince (although [[Bertrand Russell]] 1disputes this). Due to this influence, Alexander provided Aristotle with ample means for the acquisition of books and the pursuit of his scientific investigation. It is possible that Aristotle also participated in the education of Alexander's boyhood friends, which may have included for example [[Hephaestion]] and [[Harpalus]]. Aristotle maintained a long correspondence with Hephaestion, eventually collected into a book, unfortunately now lost. According to sources such as Plutarch and [[Diogenes]], Philip had Aristotle's hometown of Stageira burned during the [[340s BC]], and Aristotle successfully requested that Alexander rebuild it. During his tutorship of Alexander, Aristotle was reportedly considered a second time for leadership of the Academy; his companion Xenocrates was selected instead. ===Founder and master of the Lyceum=== In about [[335 BC]], Alexander departed for his Asiatic campaign, and Aristotle, who had served as an informal adviser (more or less) since Alexander ascended the Macedoni2an throne, returned to Athens and opened his own school of philosophy. He may, as [[Aulus Gellius]] says, have conducted a school of [[rhetoric]] during his former residence in Athens; but now, following Plato's example, he gave regular instruction in philosophy in a [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasium]] dedicated to [[Apollo Lyceios]], from which his school has come to be known as the [[Lyceum]]. (It was also called the [[Peripatetic]] School because Aristotle preferred to discuss problems of philosophy with his pupils while walking up and down -- ''peripateo'' -- the shaded walks -- ''peripatoi'' -- around the gymnasium). During the thirteen years ([[335 BC]]–[[322 BC]]) which he spent as teacher of the Lyceum, Aristotle composed most of his writings. Imitating Plato, he wrote ''[[Dialogue]]s'' in which his doctrines were expounded in somewhat popular language. He also composed the several treatises (which will be mentioned below) on physics, metaphysics, and so forth, in which the exposition 3is more [[didactic]] and the language more technical than in the ''Dialogues''. These writings show to what good use he put the resources Alexander had provided for him. They show particularly how he succeeded in bringing together the works of his predecessors in Greek philosophy, and how he pursued, either personally or through others, his investigations in the realm of natural phenomena. [[Pliny the Elder|Pliny]] claimed that Alexander placed under Aristotle's orders all the hunters, fishermen, and fowlers of the royal kingdom and all the overseers of the royal forests, lakes, ponds and cattle-ranges, and Aristotle's works on zoology make this statement more believable. Aristotle was fully informed about the doctrines of his predecessors, and [[Strabo]] asserted that he was the first to accumulate a great library. During the last years of Aristotle's life the relations between him and Alexander became very strained, owing to the disgrace and punishment of [[Callisthenes]], whom Aristotle had recommende4d to Alexander. Nevertheless, Aristotle continued to be regarded at Athens as a friend of Alexander and a representative of Macedonia. Consequently, when Alexander's death became known in Athens, and the outbreak occurred which led to the [[Lamian war]], Aristotle shared in the general unpopularity of the Macedonians. The charge of [[impiety]], which had been brought against [[Anaxagoras]] and [[Socrates]], was now, with even less reason, brought against Aristotle. He left the city, saying (according to many ancient authorities) that he would not give the Athenians a chance to sin a third time against philosophy. He took up residence at his country house at [[Chalcis]], in [[Euboea]], and there he died the following year, [[322 BC]]. His death was due to a disease, reportedly 'of the stomach', from which he had long suffered. The story that his death was due to [[hemlock]] poisoning, as well as the legend that he threw himself into the sea \"because he could not explain the [[tide]]s,\" is without histori5cal foundation. Very little is known about Aristotle's personal appearance except from hostile sources. The statues and busts of Aristotle, possibly from the first years of the Peripatetic School, represent him as sharp and keen of countenance, and somewhat below the average height. His character—as revealed by his writings, his will (which is undoubtedly genuine), fragments of his letters and the allusions of his unprejudiced contemporaries—was that of a high-minded, kind-hearted man, devoted to his family and his friends, kind to his slaves, fair to his enemies and rivals, grateful towards his benefactors. When [[Platonism]] ceased to dominate the world of [[Christianity|Christian]] speculation, and the works of Aristotle began to be studied without fear and prejudice, the personality of Aristotle appeared to the Christian writers of the [[13th century]], as it had to the unprejudiced pagan writers of his own day, as calm, majestic, untroubled by passion, and undimmed by any great moral def6ects, \"the master of those who know\". Aristotle's legacy also had a profound influence on Islamic thought and philosophy during the [[Middle Ages|middle ages]]. The likes of [[Avicenna]], [[Farabi]], and Yaqub ibn Ishaq al-Kindi[http://www.ummah.net/history/scholars/KINDI.html 1] were a few of the major proponents of the Aristotelian school of thought during the ''[[Golden Age of Islam]]''. == Methodology == {{details|Aristotle's theory of universals}} Aristotle defines philosophy in terms of [[essence]], saying that philosophy is \"the science of the universal essence of that which is [[actual]]\". Plato had defined it as the \"science of the [[idea]]\", meaning by idea what we should call the unconditional basis of [[phenomena]]. Both pupil and master regard philosophy as concerned with the [[universal]]; Aristotle, however, finds the universal in [[particular]] things, and called it the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and 7is related to them as their [[prototype]] or [[exemplar]]. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal ideas to a contemplation of particular imitations of those ideas. In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] and [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]], while Plato's is essentially deductive. In Aristotle's terminology, the term ''natural philosophy'' corresponds to the phenomena of the natural world, which include: [[motion]], [[light]], and the [[laws of physics]]. Many centuries later these subjects would become the basis of modern science, as studied through the [[scientific method]]. In modern times the term ''philosophy'' has come to be more narrowly understood as metaphysics, distinct from empirical study of the natural world via the physical sciences. In constrast, in Aristotle's time and use8 [[philosophy]] was taken to encompass all facets of intellectual inquiry. In the larger sense of the word, he makes philosophy coextensive with [[reasoning]], which he also called \"science\". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that which is covered by the scientific method. \"All science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical.\" By practical science he understands ethics and politics; by poetical, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; while by theoretical philosophy he means physics, mathematics, and metaphysics. The last, philosophy in the stricter sense, he defines as \"the knowledge of [[immaterial]] being,\" and calls it \"first philosophy\", \"the theologic science\" or of \"being in the highest degree of abstraction.\" If logic, or, as Aristotle calls it, [[Analytic]], be regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, we have as divisions of Aristotelian philosophy (1) [[Logic]]; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, in9cluding [[Metaphysics]], [[Physics]], [[Mathematics]], (3) Practical Philosophy; and (4) Poetical Philosophy. ==Aristotle's epistemology== ===Logic=== {{main|Aristotelian logic}} {{see details|Non-Aristotelian logic}} ==== History ==== Aristotle \"says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak about'\" (Bocheński, [[1951]]). However, Plato reports that [[syntax]] was thought of before him, by [[Prodikos of Keos]], who was concerned by the right use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from [[dialectics]]; the earlier philosophers used concepts like ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' as a rule when discussing, but never understood its logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic. Although he had the idea of constructing a system for [[deduction]], he was never able to construct one. Instead, he relied on his [[dialectic]], which was a confusion between different sciences and methods (Bocheński, [[1951]]). Plato thought that deduction would sim:ply follow from [[premise]]s, so he focused on having good premises so that the [[conclusion]] would follow. Later on, Plato realised that a method for obtaining the conclusion would be beneficial. Plato never obtained such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book ''Sophist'', where he introduced his division method (Rose, [[1968]]). ====Analytics and the ''Organon''==== What we call today Aristotelian logic, Aristotle himself would have labelled analytics. The term logic he reserved to mean dialectics. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not authentic, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books at about the time of [[Christ]]: #''Categories'' #''On Interpretation'' #''Prior Analytics'' #''Posterior Analytics'' #''Topics'' #''On Sophistical Refutations'' The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. Th;ere is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the ''Organon'', namely the fourth book of ''Metaphysics.'' (Bocheński, 1951). ====Modal logic==== Aristotle is also the creator of [[syllogism]]s with modalities ([[modal logic]]). The word modal refers to the word 'modes', explaining the fact that modal logic deals with the modes of [[truth]]. Aristotle introduced the qualification of 'necessary' and 'possible' premises. He constructed a logic which helped in the evaluation of truth but which was very difficult to interpret. (Rose, 1968). ===Science=== Aristotelian discussions about science had only been qualitative, not quantitative. By the modern definition of the term, Aristotelian philosophy was not science, as this [[worldview]] did not attempt to probe how the world actually worked through [[experiment]]. For example, in his book ''[[History of Animals|The history of animals]]'' he claimed that human males have more teeth than females. Had he only made some observations, he woul the producer is a cause of the product and the initiator of the change is a cause.\" This is closest to the modern definition of \"cause\". ; The [[Final Cause]] ''(That of which its purpose is)'': The final cause or ''[[telos (philosophy)|telos]]'' is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve. This includes \"all the intermediate steps that are for the end ... for example, slimming, purging, drugs, or instruments are for health; all of these are for the end, though they differ in that some are activities while others are instruments.\" An example of an artifact that has all four causes would be a table, which has material causes (wood and nails), a formal cause (the blueprint, or a generally agreed idea of what tables are), an efficient cause (the carpenter), and a final cause (using it to dine on). Aristotle argues that natural objects such as an \"individual man\" have all four causes. The material cause of an individual man would be the flesh and bone that make up an individual man. Th?e formal cause would be the blueprint of man, that which is used as a guide to create an individual man and to keep him in a certain state called man. The efficient cause of an individual man would be the father of that man, or in the case of all men an \"unmoved mover\" who breathed (''anima'': breath) into the [[soul]] (''anima'': soul) of man. The final cause of man would be as Aristotle stated, \"Now we take the human's function to be a certain kind of life, and take this life to be the soul's activity and actions that express reason. Hence the excellent man's function is to do this finely and well. Each function is completed well when its completion expresses the proper [[virtue]]. Therefore the human good turns out to be the souls' activity that expresses virtue.\" ===The difference between natural objects and artifacts=== The difference between natural objects and an artifact is that natural objects have [[self movement]]. Aristotle defined the difference between a [[natural object]] and an [[ar@tifact]] when he stated, \"In contrast to these, a bed, a cloak, or any other artifact-insofar as it is described as such i.e., as a bed, a cloak, or whatever, and to the extent that it is a product of a craft-has no [[innate]] [[impulse]] to change; but insofar as it is coincidentally made of stone or earth or a mixture of these, it has an innate impulse to change and just to that extent. This is because a nature is a type of principle and cause of motion and stability within those things to which it primarily belongs in their own right and not coincidentally.\" The natural objects are changed to artifacts through crafts but they have an innate impulse of self movement to convert through time to their natural state, and they will all turn into that state when all animals with reason are extinct from the earth. ===Modes of causation=== Aristotle states two modes of causation: *'''Proper Causation''': Things take place for the sake of something, and the result is that which is intended. *'''Accidental CauAsation''': Things that take place not out of necessity. E.g. things that take place by chance/coincidence. This cause is indeterminable. ===Chance=== Chance lies in the realm of accidental causes. It is \"from what is spontaneous\" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of \"chance\" it might be better to think of \"coincidence\": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happenBs all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance. However, chance can only apply to human beings. According to Aristotle, chance must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. \"What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance\" (Physics, 2.6). ===The Five Elements=== *'''Fire''' which is hot and dry. *'''Earth''' which is cold and dry. *'''Air''' which is hot and wet. *'''Water''' which is cold and wet. *'''Aether''' which is the divine substance that makes up the heavens These four elements interchange (i.e. Fire ↔ Air ↔ Water ↔ Earth etc.), while aether is on its own. The Sun keeps this cycle going. God keeps the Sun going (and thus the Sun is eternal). == Aristotle's ethics == {{main|Aristotelian ethics}} Although Aristotle wrote several works on [[ethics]], the major one was the ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', which is considered one of Aristotle's greatest works; it discusses [[virtue]]s. The ten books Cwhich comprise it are based on notes from his lectures at the [[Lyceum]] and were either edited by or dedicated to Aristotle's son, [[Nicomachus]]. Aristotle believed that ethical knowledge is not ''certain'' knowledge (like [[metaphysics]] and [[epistemology]]) but is ''general knowledge''. Also, as it is not a [[theory|theoretical]] discipline, he thought a person had to study in order to become \"good.\" Thus, if a person was to become virtuous, they could not simply study what virtue ''is'', they had to actually do virtuous activity. In order to do this, Aristotle had to first establish what was virtuous. He began by determining that everything was done with some goal in mind and that goal is 'good.' The ultimate goal he called the ''Highest Good''. Aristotle contested that happiness could not be found only in pleasure or only in fame and honor. He finally finds happiness \"by ascertaining the specific function of man. But what is this function that will bring happiness? To determine this, ArisDtotle analyzed the soul and found it to have three parts: the Nutritive Soul (plants, animals and humans), the Perceptive Soul (animals and humans) and the Rational Soul (humans only). Thus, a human's function is to do what makes it human, to be good at what sets it apart from everything else: the ability to reason or ''Nous''. A person that does this is the happiest because they are fulfulling their purpose or nature as found in the rational soul. Depending on how well they did this, Aristotle said people belonged to one of four categories: the Virtuous, the Continent, the Incontinent and the Vicious. Aristotle believes that every ethical virtue is an intermediate condition between [[excess]] and [[deficiency]]. This does not mean Aristotle believed in moral relativism, however. He set certain emotions (e.g., hate, envy, jealousy, spite, etc.) and certain actions (e.g., adultery, theft, murder, etc.) as being always wrong, regardless of the situation or the circumstances. ===Nicomachean ethics=== {{Emain|Nicomachean Ethics}} In ''Nicomachean Ethics'', Aristotle focuses on the importance of continually [[behavior|behaving]] virtuously and developing [[virtue]] rather than committing specific good actions. This can be contrasted with [[Immanuel Kant|Kantian]] ethics, in which the primary focus is on individual action. ''Nicomachean Ethics'' emphasizes the importance of context to ethical behaviour — what might be right in one situation might be wrong in another. Aristotle believed that [[happiness]] is the end of life and that as long as a person is striving for [[goodness]], good deeds will result from that struggle, making the person virtuous and therefore happy. == Aristotle's critics == [[Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|left|[[Plato]] (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of ''[[Raphael Rooms|The School of Athens]]'', a fresco by [[Raphael]]. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience.]] Aristotle has been cFriticised on several grounds. * His analysis of procreation is frequently criticised on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that some feminist critics refer to Aristotle as a misogynist. *At times, the objections that Aristotle raises against the arguments of his own teacher, [[Plato]], appear to rely on faulty interpretations of those arguments. *Although Aristotle advised, against Plato, that knowledge of the world could only be obtained through experience, he frequently failed to take his own advice. Aristotle conducted projects of careful [[empirical]] investigation, but often drifted into [[Abstraction|abstract]] logical reasoning, with the result that his work was littered with conclusions that were not supported by empirical evidence: for example, his assertion that objects of different [[mass]] fall at different speeds under [[gravity]], which was later refuted by [[John PhiloponuGs]] (credit is often given to [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], even though Philopinus lived centuries earlier). *In the [[Middle Ages]], roughly from the [[12th century]] to the [[15th century]], the philosophy of Aristotle became firmly established [[dogma]]. Although Aristotle himself was far from dogmatic in his approach to philosophical inquiry, two aspects of his philosophy might have assisted its transformation into dogma. His works were wide-ranging and [[systematic]] so that they could give the impression that no significant matter had been left unsettled. He was also much less inclined to employ the [[skeptic]]al methods of his predecessors, Socrates and Plato. *Some academics have suggested that Aristotle was unaware of much of the current science of his own time, and that he was a far lesser [[mathematician]] than many of his learned contemporaries. Aristotle was called not a great philosopher, but \"The Philosopher\" by [[Scholastic]] thinkers. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with HChristianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. == Aristotle's mistake == Aristotle failed to understand the importance of his written work for humanity. He thus never published his books, except from his dialogues. The story of the original manuscripts of his treatises is described by [[Strabo]] in his Geography and [[Plutarch]] in his \"[[Parallel Lives]], Sulla\": The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to [[Theophrastus]], from Theophrastus to [[Neleus of Scepsis]], from Neleus to his heirs. Their descendants sold them to [[Apellicon of Teos]]. When [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]] occupied Athens in [[86 BC]], he carried off the library of Appellicon to [[Rome]], where they were first published in [[60 BC]] from the grammarian [[Tyrranion of Amisus]] and then by philosopher [[Andronicus of Rhodes]]. I == Bibliography == ''Note: [[Bekker numbers]] are often used to uniquely identify passages of Aristotle. They are identified below where available.'' === Major works === The extant works of Aristotle are broken down according to the five categories in the ''[[Corpus Aristotelicum]]''. Not all of these works are considered genuine, but differ with respect to their connection to Aristotle, his associates and his views. Some, such as the ''Athenaion Politeia'' or the fragments of other ''politeia'' are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's \"school\" and compiled under his direction or supervision. Other works, such ''On Colours'' may have been products of Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., [[Theophrastus]] and [[Straton]]. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the ''De Plantis,'' possibly by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]]. A final category, omitted here, includes medieval [[palmistries]], [[astrological]] and [[magical]] texts whose cJonnection to Aristotle is purely fanciful and self-promotional. Those that are seriously disputed are marked with an asterisk. ==== Logical writings ==== * [[Organon]] (collected works on logic): ** (1a) [[Categories (Aristotle)|Categories]] (or ''Categoriae'') ** (16a) [[On Interpretation]] (or ''De Interpretatione'') ** (24a) [[Prior Analytics]] (or ''Analytica Priora'') ** (71a) [[Posterior Analytics]] (or ''Analytica Posteriora'') ** (100b) [[Topics (Aristotle)|Topics]] (or ''Topica'') ** (164a) [[On Sophistical Refutations]] (or ''De Sophisticis Elenchis'') ==== Physical and scientific writings ==== * (184a) [[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]] (or ''Physica'') * (268a) [[On the Heavens]] (or ''De Caelo'') * (314a) [[On Generation and Corruption]] (or ''De Generatione et Corruptione'') * (338a) [[Meteorology (Aristotle)|Meteorology]] (or ''Meteorologica'') * (391a) [[On the Cosmos]] (or ''De Mundo'', or ''On the Universe'') * * (402a) [[On the Soul]] (or ''De Anima'') * (436a) [[Little Physical TreatiseKs]] (or ''Parva Naturalia''): ** [[On Sense and the Sensible]] (or ''De Sensu et Sensibilibus'') ** [[On Memory and Reminiscence]] (or ''De Memoria et Reminiscentia'') ** [[On Sleep and Sleeplessness]] (or ''De Somno et Vigilia'') ** [[On Dreams]] (or ''De Insomniis'') * ** [[On Prophesying by Dreams]] (or ''De Divinatione per Somnum'') ** [[On Longevity and Shortness of Life]] (or ''De Longitudine et Brevitate Vitae'') ** [[On Youth and Old Age]] (On Life and Death) (or ''De Juventute et Senectute'', ''De Vita et Morte'') ** [[On Breathing]] (or ''De Respiratione'') * (481a) [[On Breath]] (or ''De Spiritu'') * * (486a) [[History of Animals]] (or ''Historia Animalium'', or ''On the History of Animals'', or ''Description of Animals'') * (639a) [[On the Parts of Animals]] (or ''De Partibus Animalium'') * (698a) [[On the Gait of Animals]] (or ''De Motu Animalium'', or ''On the Movement of Animals'') * (704a) [[On the Progression of Animals]] (or ''De Incessu Animalium'') * (715a) [[On the Generation of AnimaLls]] (or ''De Generatione Animalium'') * (791a) [[On Colours]] (or ''De Coloribus'') * * (800a) ''[[De audibilibus]]'' * (805a) [[Physiognomics]] (or ''Physiognomonica'') * * [[On Plants]] (or ''De Plantis'') * * (830a) [[On Marvellous Things Heard]] (or ''Mirabilibus Auscultationibus'', or ''On Things Heard'') * * (847a) [[Mechanical Problems]] (or ''Mechanica'') * * (859a) [[Problems (Aristotle)|Problems]] (or ''Problemata'') * * (968a) [[On Indivisible Lines]] (or ''De Lineis Insecabilibus'') * * (973a) [[Situations and Names of Winds]] (or ''Ventorum Situs'') * ==== Metaphysical writings ==== * (980a) [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]] (or ''Metaphysica'') ==== Ethical writings ==== * (1094a) [[Nicomachean Ethics]] (or ''Ethica Nicomachea'', or ''The Ethics'') * (1181a) [[Great Ethics]] (or ''Magna Moralia'') * * (1214a) [[Eudemian Ethics]] (or ''Ethica Eudemia'') * (1249a) [[Virtues and Vices]] (or ''De Virtutibus et Vitiis Libellus'', ''Libellus de virtutibus'') * * (1252a) [[Politics (AristoMtle)|Politics]] (or ''Politica'') * (1343a) [[Economics (Aristotle)|Economics]] (or ''Oeconomica'') ==== Aesthetic writings ==== * (1354a) [[Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Rhetoric]] (or ''Ars Rhetorica'', or ''The Art of Rhetoric'' or ''Treatise on Rhetoric'') * [[Rhetoric to Alexander]] (or ''Rhetorica ad Alexandrum'') * * (1447a) [[Poetics]] (or ''Ars Poetica'') ==== Writings absent from ''Corpus Aristotelicum'' ==== * The [[Constitution of the Athenians]] (or ''Athenaion Politeia'', or ''The Athenian Constitution'') * * ''On [[Melissus of Samos|Melissus]]'', ''On [[Xenophanes]]'', and ''On [[Gorgias]]''. These are sometimes grouped together and called the \"MXG\" writings. They clearly are not written by Aristotle, and are believed to date from the [[fifth century]] AD. However, because they have frequently been attributed to him in the past, they are often included in compilations of his writings (for example, in the [[Loeb Classical Library]]). === Specific editions=== * [[Princeton University]] Press: ''TNhe Complete Works of Aristotle: The Revised Oxford Translation'' (2 Volume Set; Bollingen Series, Vol. LXXI, No. 2), edited by [[Jonathan Barnes]] ISBN 0-691-09950-2 (The most complete recent translation of Aristotle's extant works) * [[University of Oxford|Oxford University]] Press: ''Clarendon Aristotle Series''. [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/series/ClarendonAristotleSeries/?view=usa Scholarly edition] * [[Harvard University]] Press: ''[[Loeb Classical Library#Aristotle|Loeb Classical Library]]'' (hardbound; publishes in Greek, with English translations on facing pages) * [[Oxford Classical Texts]] (hardbound; Greek only) ==Named after Aristotle== *[[Aristoteles (crater)|Aristoteles crater]] on the [[Moon]]. *The [[Aristotle University of Thessaloniki]] *Aristotle's Cockney legacy - The name of Aristotle, like that of [[J. Arthur Rank]], became a common expression in [[Cockney rhyming slang]]. ==See also== *[[Aristotelian view of God]] *[[Aristotelian theory of gravity]] *[[Philosophy]] *[[OPlato]] *[[Logic]] *[[Potentiality and actuality %28Aristotle%29|Aristotle's theory of potentialiy and actuality]] ==References== Needless to say, the secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection. * {{Book reference | Last = Adler | First = Mortimer J. | Authorlink = Mortimer Adler | Title=Aristotle for Everybody | Publisher=Macmillan | Location = New York | Year=1978 }} A popular exposition for the general reader. * {{Book reference | Last = Bocheński | First = I. M. | Authorlink = I. M. Bocheński | Title=Ancient Formal Logic | Publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company | Location = Amsterdam | Year=1951 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Guthrie | First = W. K. C. | Title=A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6 | Publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] | Year=1981 }} A detailed and scholarly work, but very readable. * {{Book reference | Last = Melchert | First = Norman | Authorlink = Norman Melchert | TPitle=The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy | Publisher=[[McGraw Hill]] | Year=2002 | ID=ISBN 0195175107 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Rose | First = Lynn E. | Authorlink = Lynn E. Rose | Title=Aristotle's Syllogistic | Publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher | Location = Springfield | Year=1968 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Taylor | First = Henry Osborn | Authorlink = Henry Osborn Taylor | URL = http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html | Title = Greek Biology and Medicine | Year = 1922 | Chapter = Chapter 3: [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html Aristotle's Biology] }} * {{Book reference | Last = Turner | First = William | Authorlink = William Turner | Others = Nihil Obstat Remy Lafort, S.T.D.; Censor Imprimatur + John Cardinal Farley, Abp. of New York | Title = The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume I: \"Aristotle\" | Publisher = Robert Appleton Company | Edition = 1907 | Year = 1907 | Location=New York }} * {{Book referQence | Last = Veatch | First = Henry B. | Authorlink = Henry Babcock Veatch | Title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation | Publisher=Indiana U. Press | Location = Bloomington | Year=1974 }} For the general reader. ==External links== {{Wikisource author}} {{wikiquote}} {{commons|Aristotelēs}} *{{gutenberg author | id=Aristotle | name=Aristotle}} *[http://Aristotle.thefreelibrary.com/ A brief biography and e-texts presented one chapter at a time] *[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aristotl.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Aristotle.], 2004. *[http://www.non-contradiction.com/ An extensive collection of Aristotle's philosophy and works, including lesser known texts] *[http://www.virtuescience.com/nicomachean-ethics.html Nicomachean Ethics by Aristotle.] *[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0505172 Aristotle and Indian logic] *O'Connor, J. John & Robertson, Edmund F., [http://www-history.mcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/Mathematicians/Aristotle.html Aristotle], 2004. *{{PerseusAuthor|AriRstotle}} *{{planetmath|id=5840|title=Aristotle}} *[http://www.greektexts.com/library/Aristotle/index.html Large collection of Aristotle's texts, presented page by page] *[http://www.greek-literature-online.com/aristotle/ Read Aristotle's works online] *[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm Source of most of the Biography and Methodology sections, as well as more overview] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Aristotle}} {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:322 BC deaths|Aristotle]] [[Category:384 BC births|Aristotle]] [[Category:Ancient Greek mathematicians]] [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers]] [[Category:Aristotelian philosophers]] [[Category:Aristotle]] [[Category:Empiricists]] [[Category:Greek logicians]] [[Category:History of philosophy]] [[Category:History of science]] [[Category:Meteorologists]] [[Category:Rhetoric]] {{Link FA|fi}} [[ar:أرسطو]] [[ba:Аристотель]] [[bg:Аристотел]] [[bs:Aristotel]] [[ca:Aristòtil]] [[cs:Aristotelés]] [[da:Aristoteles]] [[de:Aristoteles]] [[el:Αριστοτέλης]] [[eo:Aristotelo]] [[es:Aristóteles de Estagira]] [[et:Aristoteles]] [[eu:Aristoteles]] [[fa:ارسطو]] [[fi:Aristoteles]] [[fr:Aristote]] [[ga:Arastotail]] [[gl:Aristóteles - Αριστοτέλης]] [[he:אריסטו]] [[hr:Aristotel]] [[hu:Arisztotelész]] [[id:Aristoteles]] [[io:Aristoteles]] [[is:Aristóteles]] [[it:Aristotele]] [[ja:アリストテレス]] [[jv:Aristoteles]] [[ko:아리스토텔레스]] [[la:Aristoteles]] [[lt:Aristotelis]] [[lv:Aristotelis]] [[mk:Аристотел]] [[ms:Aristotle]] [[nds:Aristoteles]] [[nl:Aristoteles]] [[nn:Aristoteles]] [[no:Aristoteles]] [[pl:Arystoteles]] [[pt:Aristóteles]] [[ro:Aristotel]] [[ru:Аристотель]] [[simple:Aristotle]] [[sk:Aristoteles]] [[sl:Aristotel]] [[sq:Aristoteli]] [[sr:Аристотел]] [[sv:Aristoteles]] [[ta:அரிஸ்டாட்டில்]] [[th:อริสโตเติล]] [[tl:Aristoteles]] [[tr:Aristoteles]] [[uk:Арістотель]] [[vi:Aristotle]] [[zh:亚里士多德]]utf-8ng [[Gene Kelly]].'' '''''An American in Paris''''' is a [[European-influenced classical music|symphonic]] composition by [[United States|American]] composer [[George Gershwin]] which debuted in [[1928]]. Inspired by Gershwin's time in [[Paris]], it is in the form of an extended [[tone poem]] evoking the sights and energy of the [[France|French]] capital in the [[1920s]]. In addition to the standard instruments of the [[symphony orchestra]], the score features period automobile horns; Gershwin brought back some Parisian taxi-cab horns for the New York premiere of the composition. * \"An American In Paris\" is second only to [[Rhapsody In Blue]] as a favorite of Gershwin's classical compositions. * The score also features instruments rarely seen in the concert hall: [[celesta]] and [[saxophone]]s. [[Category:Compositions by George Gershwin]] [[Category:Symphonic poems|American in Paris, An]] [[pl:Amerykanin w Paryżu]] [[sv:An American in Paris (symfonisk dikt)]]utf-8 }GIqQ0yWDX#REDIRECT [[Public-key cryptography]]utf-8x5DW#REDIRECT [[Animal]]utf-8w3DV#REDIRECT [[actor]]utf-88vgDU#REDIRECT [[List of male movie actors (A-K)]]utf-8u3DT#REDIRECT [[Actor]]utf-8%tADS#REDIRECT [[Action movie]]utf-8EsDR[[Image:oscar2.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Academy Award]] The '''Academy Awards''', commonly known asWAryDQ#redirect [[Academy Award for Live Action Short Film]]utf-84q_DP#redirect [[Academy Award for Best Song]]utf-8>psDO#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Documentary Feature]]utf-8>osDN#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Cinematography]]utf-8FnDM#redirect [[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film]]utf-84m_DL#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Directing]]utf-8=lqDK#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Art Direction]]utf-8Bk{DJ#REDIRECT [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress]]utf-8 cKKRY`gnu|$+29@GNU\cjqx  '.5<CJQX_fmt{CCCCCCCCC C C C C CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC D!D"D#D$D%D&D'D(D)D *D +D ,D -D .D/D0D1D2D3D4D5D6D7D8D9D:D;D<D=D>D?D@D AD!BD"CD#DD$ED%FD&GD'HD(ID)JD*KD+LD,MD-ND.OD/PD0QD1RD2SD3TD4UD5VD6WD7XD8YD9ZD:[D;\D<]D=^D>_D?`D@aDAbDBc _#;BIPW^elsz (08@HPX`hpx (08@HPX`hpx3+#DDDDDeDEfDFgDGhDHiDIjDJkDKlDLmDMnDNoDOpDPqDQrDRsDStDTuDUvDVwDWxDXyDYzDZ{D[|D\}D]~D^D_D`DaDbDcDdDeDfDgDhDiDjDkDlDmDnDoDpDqDrDsDtDuDvDwDxDyDzD{D|D}D~DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDX the '''Oscars''', are the most prominent [[film]] awards in the [[United States]] and arguably the world. The Awards are granted by the [[Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences]], a professional honorary organization which [[as of 2003]] had a voting membership of 5,816. Actors (with a membership of 1,311) make up the largest voting bloc. The most recent awards were the [[77th Academy Awards]]. ==Oscar Statuette== The official name of the Oscar [[statuette]] is the \"Academy Award of Merit.\" Made of [[gold]]-plated [[britannium]], it is 13.5 inches (34 cm) tall and depicts a [[knight]] holding a [[crusader]]'s [[sword]] standing on a [[reel]] of film. The root of the name \"Oscar\" is contested. Some believe it comes from Academy librarian [[Margaret Herrick]], who saw it on a table and said, \"it looks just like my uncle Oscar!\" Others claim that [[Bette Davis]] named it after her first husband. However it became, the nickname stuck and is used almost as commonly as ''Academy Award'', even by Ythe Academy itself. In fact, the Academy's domain name is ''oscars.org'' and the official website for the Academy Awards is at ''oscars.com''. [[Image:BobHopegettingOsca.jpg|right|thumb|161px|Although he never won an Oscar for any of his movie performances, the comedian [[Bob Hope]] received five honorary Oscars for contributions to cinema and humanitarian work.]] ==Awards night== The major awards are given out at a ceremony usually in March following the relevant calendar year. This is an elaborate extravaganza, with the invited guests walking up the red carpet in the creations of the most prominent [[fashion]] designers of the day. The ceremony and extravagant afterparties, including the Academy's Governors Ball, are televised around the world. ==Nominations== Today, according to Rules 2 and 3 of the official Academy Awards Rules, a film has to open in the previous calendar year (from [[midnight]] [[January 1]] to midnight [[December 31]]) in [[Los Angeles County, California]], to qualify. [http://wwZw.oscars.org/78academyawards/rules/index.html] Rule 2 states that a film must be \"feature-length\" (defined as 40 minutes) to qualify for an award (except for Short Subject awards, of course). It must also exist either on a [[35 mm film|35mm]] or [[70 mm film|70mm]] film print OR on a 24fps or 48fps [[progressive scan]] [[digital film]] print with a native resolution no lower than [[SXGA|1280x1024]]. ==Awards Up To 2005== The \"Academy Award of Merit\" is given in many categories, including the following: *[[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] – [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor]] – [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Actress|Best Actress]] – [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] – [[1936]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress|Best Supporting Actress]] – [[1936]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Animated Feature|Best Animated [Feature]] – [[2001]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Art Direction|Best Art Direction]] – [[1928]] to present (also called Interior or Set Decoration) *[[Academy Award for Best Assistant Director|Best Assistant Director]] – [[1933]] to [[1937]] *[[Academy Award for Best Cinematography|Best Cinematography]] – [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Comedy Direction|Comedy Direction]] – [[1928]] only *[[Academy Award for Costume Design|Costume Design]] – [[1948]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Dance Direction|Best Dance Direction]] – [[1935]] to [[1937]] *[[Academy Award for Directing|Directing]] – [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Documentary Feature|Documentary Feature]] *[[Academy Award for Documentary Short Subject|Documentary Short Subject]] *[[Academy Award for Engineering Effects|Engineering Effects]] – [[1928]] only *[[Academy Award for Film Editing|Film Editing]] – [[193\5]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film|Best Foreign Language Film]] – [[1947]] to present *[[Academy Award for Makeup|Makeup]] – [[1981]] to present *[[Academy Award for Original Music Score|Original Music Score]] *[[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Song]] *[[Academy Award for Animated Short Film|Animated Short Film]] – [[1931]] to present *[[Academy Award for Live Action Short Film|Live Action Short Film]] *[[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Color|Best Short Film - Color]] – [[1936]] and [[1937]] *[[Academy Award for Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels|Best Short Film - Live Action - 2 Reels]] – [[1936]] to [[1956]] *[[Academy Award for Short Film - Novelty|Short Film - Novelty]] – [[1932]] to [[1935]] *[[Academy Award for Sound|Sound]] *[[Academy Award for Sound Effects Editing|Sound Effects Editing]] – [[1963]] to present *[[Academy Award for Best Story|Best Story]] – [[1928]] to [[195]6]] *[[Academy Award for Best Title Writing|Best Title Writing]] – [[1928]] only *[[Academy Award for Unique and Artistic Production|Unique and Artistic Production]] – [[1928]] only *[[Academy Award for Visual Effects|Visual Effects]] – [[1939]] to present *[[Academy Award for Writing Adapted Screenplay|Writing Adapted Screenplay]] – [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|Writing Original Screenplay]] – [[1940]] to present * [[Academy Award, Scientific or Technical]] – [[1931]] to present at three levels Special Awards, which are voted on by special committees, rather than by the Academy membership as a whole, include: *[[Academy Juvenile Award]] – [[1934]] to [[1960]] *[[Academy Honorary Award]] – [[1928]] to present *[[Academy Special Achievement Award]] *[[The Irving G. Thalberg Memorial Award]] – [[1938]] to present *[[The Jean Hersholt Humanitarian Award]] *[[Gordon E. Sa^wyer Award]] ==Academy Award Statistics== *[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving 10 or more nominations]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Films receiving awards for Best Picture, Directing, Actor, Actress and Writing]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Actors receiving 5 or more nominations]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Actors receiving 2 or more awards]] *[[Academy Award statistics: Directors receiving 3 or more nominations]] ==See also== *[[List of Academy Awards ceremonies]] *[[List of movies that have won eight or more Academy Awards]] *[[List of Academy Award winning movies]] ==References== Gail, K. & Piazza, J. (2002) ''The Academy Awards the Complete History of Oscar.'' Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, Inc. ==External links== * [http://www.oscars.org/ Oscars.org] * [http://www.oscars.org/awardsdatabase/index.html The Academy Awards Database] * [http://www.oscar.com Oscar.com] * [http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Awards/Academy_Awards_USA/ The Academy Awards] at [[The Internet Movie Database]] * [http://www.thecheappop.com/pred.html 2006 Oscar predictions] * [http://outrate.net/oscars.html Feature on Gay history of the Oscars, where you can VOTE for your favorites!] [[Category:Academy Awards| Academy Award]] [[Category:Film awards]] [[af:Oscar]] [[bg:Оскар]] [[bs:Oskar]] [[ca:Premi Òscar]] [[cs:Oscar]] [[da:Oscar-uddeling]] [[de:Oscar]] [[es:Premios Oscar]] [[eo:Oskar-premio]] [[fa:اسکار]] [[fr:Oscar du cinéma]] [[kn:ಆಸ್ಕರ್ ಪ್ರಶಸ್ತಿ]] [[ko:아카데미상]] [[hr:Oscar]] [[id:Academy Award]] [[ilo:Pammadayaw nga Oscar]] [[it:Premio Oscar]] [[he:פרס האוסקר]] [[hu:Oscar-díj]] [[zh-min-nan:Oscar Chióng]] [[nl:Academy Award]] [[ja:アカデミー賞]] [[nb:Oscar]] [[pl:Nagroda Akademii Filmowej]] [[pt:Óscar]] [[ro:Premiul Oscar]] [[fi:Oscar-palkinto]] [[sq:Academy Award]] [[sv:Oscar (filmpris)]] [[zh:奥斯卡金像奖]]utf-8`[International Bureau of Weights and Measures]] is in charge of the realization of TAI. The highest precision realization of TAI times can only be determined retrospectively, as the timescale is defined by periodic comparisons among its participating atomic clocks. However, these corrections are usually only needed for applications that require nanosecond-scale accuracy. Most time service users use realtime estimates of TAI provided by atomic clocks that have been previously referenced to the composite timescale. [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] is a commonly-used realtime source of time traceable back to TAI. [[Coordinated Universal Time]] (UTC) is the basis for legal time throughout much of the world, and always differs from TAI by an integral number of seconds. From [[1 January]] [[2006]], UTC was behind TAI by 33 seconds. The difference is due to an initial ten second offset on [[1 January]] [[1972]] when UTC was established and [[leap second]]s, which have been periodically inserted into UTC saince the first on [[30 June]] [[1972]] due to slight irregularities in Earth's rate of rotation. While TAI is a continuous and stable timescale, UTC has intentional discontinuities to keep it from drifting more than 0.9 second from [[UT1]], a timescale defined by the Earth's rotation. Roughly speaking, solar noon (the time at which the sun is directly overhead) would drift away from 12:00:00 without leap second corrections. UT1 is computed by the [[International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service]] (IERS). TAI was defined such that TAI = [[UT2]] on [[January 1]] [[1958]]. Because UTC is a discontinuous timescale, it is not possible to compute the exact time interval elapsed between two UTC timestamps without consulting a table that describes how many leap seconds occurred during that interval. Therefore, many scientific applications that require precise measurement of long (multi-year) intervals use TAI instead. TAI is also commonly used by systems that can not handle leap seconds. ==See also== * [[Terrestrial Time]] * [[Coordinated Universal Time]] * [[Universal Time]] * [[Sidereal Time]] * [[Time and frequency transfer]] * [[Clock synchronization]] * [[Network Time Protocol]] ==External links== * [http://www.bipm.fr/enus/5_Scientific/c_time/time_1.html ''Bureau International des Poids et Mesures''] * [http://hpiers.obspm.fr IERS website] * [http://www.boulder.nist.gov/timefreq/general/faq.htm ''NIST Time and Frequency FAQs''] [[Category:Time scales]] [[de:Internationale Atomzeit]] [[eo:TAI]] [[es:Tiempo atómico]] [[fr:Temps atomique international]] [[he:הזמן האטומי הבינלאומי]] [[id:Waktu Atom Internasional]] [[ja:国際原子時]] [[pl:Międzynarodowy czas atomowy]] [[ru:Международное атомное время]] [[sk:Medzinárodný atómový čas]] [[zh:原子时]] [[sv:TAI]]utf-8 CC'{ADZ'''Altruism''' is alternately a belief, a practice, a habit, or an [[ethics|ethical doctrine]]. Many cultures and religious traditions judge altruism to be [[virtue|virtuous]]. In [[Buddhism]] it is considered a fundamental property of [[human nature]]. ''Altruism'' can refer to: * being helpful to other people with little or no interest in being rewarded for one's efforts (the cz+DY'''Temps Atomique International''' ('''TAI''') or '''International Atomic Time''' is a very accurate and stable [[time scale]]. It is a weighted average of the time kept by about 300 [[atomic clock]]s (including a large number of [[caesium]] atomic clocks) in over 50 national laboratories worldwide. It has been available since [[1955]], and became the international standard on which [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]] is based on [[January 1]], [[1972]], as decided by the 14th [[General Conference on Weights and Measures]] (CGPM). The [_dcolloquial definition). This is distinct from merely helping others. * actions that benefit others with a net detrimental or neutral effect on the actor, regardless of the actor's own psychology, motivation, or the cause of her actions. This type of altruistic behavior is referred to in [[ecology]] as ''[[Commensalism]]''. * an ethical doctrine that holds that individuals have a moral obligation to help others, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interest or benefit. One who holds such a doctrine is known as an \"altruist.\" The concepts have a long history in [[philosophical]] and [[ethical]] thought, and have more recently become a topic for [[psychologists]], [[sociologists]], [[evolution]]ary biologists, and [[ethology|ethologists]]. While ideas about altruism from one field can have an impact on the other fields, the different methods and focuses of these fields lead to different perspectives on altruism. Altruism can be distinguished from a feeling of [[loyalty]] and [[duty]]. Altruism foecuses on a moral obligation towards all [[humanity]], while duty focuses on a moral obligation towards a specific individual (e.g. a [[king]]), a specific organization (e.g. a [[government]]), or an abstract concept (e.g. [[God]], [[country]] etc). Some individuals may feel both altruism and duty, while others may not. As opposed to altruism, duty is much easier to enforce by an [[authority]]. ==Altruism in ethics== ''Main article: [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]]'' The word \"altruism\" (''French, altruisme, from autrui: \"other people\", derived from Latin alter: \"other\"'') was coined by [[Auguste Comte]], the French founder of [[positivism]], in order to describe the ethical doctrine he supported. He believed that individuals had a moral obligation to serve the interest of others or the \"greater good\" of humanity. Comte says, in his Catechisme Positiviste, that ''\"[the] social point of view cannot tolerate the notion of rights, for such notion rests on individualism. We are born under a load of ofbligations of every kind, to our predecessors, to our successors, to our contemporaries. After our birth these obligations increase or accumulate, for it is some time before we can return any service.... This [\"to live for others\"], the definitive formula of human morality, gives a direct sanction exclusively to our instincts of benevolence, the common source of happiness and duty. [Man must serve] Humanity, whose we are entirely.\"'' As the name of the ethical doctrine is \"altruism,\" doing what the ethical doctrine prescribes has also come to be referred to by the term \"altruism\" -- serving others through placing their interests above one's own. However, the idea that one has a moral obligation to serve others is much older than Auguste Comte. For example, many of the world's oldest and most widespread [[religion]]s (particularly [[Buddhism]] and [[Christianity]]) advocate it. In the [[New Testament]] of the [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Bible]], it is explained as follows: :\"Jesus made answer andg said, ''A certain man was going down from Jerusalem to Jericho; and he fell among robbers, who both stripped him and beat him, and departed, leaving him half dead. And by chance a certain priest was going down that way: and when he saw him, he passed by on the other side. And in like manner a Levite also, when he came to the place, and saw him, passed by on the other side. But a certain Samaritan, as he journeyed, came where he was: and when he saw him, he was moved with compassion, and came to him, and bound up his wounds, pouring on [them] oil and wine; and he set him on his own beast, and brought him to an inn, and took care of him. And on the morrow he took out two shillings, and gave them to the host, and said, Take care of him; and whatsoever thou spendest more, I, when I come back again, will repay thee.'' Which of these three, thinkest thou, proved neighbor unto him that fell among the robbers? And he said, He that showed mercy on him. And Jesus said unto him, '''Go, and do thou likewise.'''\" ''h(Luke 10: 30-37)'' Philosophers who support [[ethical egoism|egoism]] have argued that altruism is demeaning to the individual and that no moral obligation to help others actually exists. [[Nietzsche]] asserts that altruism is predicated on the assumption that others are more important than one's self and that such a position is degrading and demeaning. He also claims that it was very uncommon for people in Europe to consider the sacrifice of one's own interests for others as virtuous until after the advent of Christianity. [[Ayn Rand]] argued that altruism is the willful sacrifice of one's values, and represents the reversal of morality because only a rationally selfish ethics allows one to pursue the values required for human life. Advocates of altruism as an ethical doctrine maintain that one ought to act, or refrain from acting, so that benefit or [[good (economics)|good]] is bestowed on other people, if necessary to the exclusion of one's own interests (Note that refraining from murdering someone, ifor example, is not altruism since he is not receiving a benefit or being helped, as he already has his life; this would amount to the same thing as ignoring someone). ==Altruism in ethology and evolutionary biology== In the science of [[ethology]] (the study of behavior), altruism refers to behavior by an individual that increases the [[fitness (biology)|fitness]] of another individual while decreasing the fitness of the actor. This would appear to be counter-intuitive if one presumes that [[natural selection]] acts on the individual. Natural selection, however, acts on the gene pool of the subjects, not on each subject individually. Recent developments in [[game theory]] have provided some explanations for apparent altruism, as have traditional evolutionary analyses. Among the proposed mechanisms are: * [[Kin selection]] including [[eusociality]] (see also \"[[selfish gene]]\") * [[Reciprocal altruism]], mutual aid * [[Behavioral manipulation]] (e.g. by [[parasites]]) * [[Indirect reciprocity]] (e.g. j[[reputation]]) * [[Bounded rationality]] (see e.g. [[Herbert Simon]]) * [[Strong reciprocity]] * [[Sexual selection]] The study of altruism was the initial impetus behind [[George R. Price]]'s development of the [[Price equation]] which is a mathematical equation used to study genetic evolution. An interesting example of altruism is found in the cellular [[slime mould]]s, such as ''[[Dictyostelid|Dictyostelium]] mucoroides''. These protists live as individual [[amoebae]] until starved, at which point they aggregate and form a multicellular fruiting body in which some cells sacrifice themselves to promote the survival of other cells in the fruiting body. Social behavior and altruism share many similaraties to the interactions between the many parts (cells, genes) of an organism, but are distinguished by the ability of each individual to reproduce indefinitely without an absolute requirement for its neighbors. ==Altruism in psychology and sociology== If one performs an act beneficial to others with a viekw to gaining some personal benefit, then it is not an altruistically motivated act. There are several different perspectives on how \"benefit\" (or \"interest\") should be defined. A material gain (e.g. money, a physical reward, etc.) is clearly a form of benefit, while others identify and include both material and immaterial gains (affection, respect, happiness, satisfaction etc.) as being philosophically identical benefits. According to ''[[psychological egoism]]'', while people can exhibit altruistic ''behavior'', they cannot have altruistic ''motivations''. Psychological egoists would say that while they might very well spend their lives benefitting others with no material benefit (or a material net loss) to themselves, their most basic motive for doing so is always to further their own interests. For example, it would be alleged that the foundational motive behind a person acting this way is to advance their own psychological well-being (\"good feeling\"). Critics of this theory often reject it on tlhe grounds that it is [[falsifiability|non-falsifiable]]; in other words, it is designed in such a way as to be impossible to prove or disprove - because immaterial gains such as a \"good feeling\" cannot be measured or proven to exist in all people performing altruistic acts. Psychological egoism has also been accused of using [[circular logic]]: \"If a person willingly performs an act, that means he derives personal enjoyment from it; therefore, people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment\". This statement is circular because its conclusion is identical to its hypothesis (it assumes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment, and concludes that people only perform acts that give them personal enjoyment). In contrast to psychological egoism, the ''[[empathy-altruism]]'' hypothesis states that when an individual experiences empathy towards someone in need, the individual will then be altruistically motivated to help that person; that is, the individual will be primarilmy concerned about that person's welfare, not his or her own. In common parlance, altruism usually means helping another person without expecting material reward from that or other persons, although it may well entail the \"internal\" benefit of a \"good feeling,\" sense of satisfaction, self-esteem, fulfillment of duty (whether imposed by a religion or ideology or simply one's conscience), or the like. In this way one need not speculate on the motives of the altruist in question. Humans are not exclusively altruistic towards family members, previous co-operators or potential future allies, but can be altruistic towards people they don't know and will never meet. For example, humans donate to international [[charity|charities]] and volunteer their time to help [[society]]'s less fortunate. It strains plausibility to claim that these altruistic deeds are done in the hope of a return favor. The game theory analysis of this 'just in case' strategy, where the principle would be 'always help everyone in ncase you need to pull in a favor in return', is a decidedly ''non-optimal'' strategy, where the net expenditure of effort (tit) is far greater than the net profit when it occasionally pays off (tat). According to some, it is difficult to believe that these behaviors are solely explained as indirect selfish [[rationality]], be it conscious or sub-conscious. Mathematical formulations of [[kin selection]], along the lines of the [[prisoner's dilemma]], are helpful as far as they go; but what a [[game theory|game-theoretic]] explanation glosses over is the fact that altruistic behavior can be attributed to that apparently mysterious phenomenon, the [[conscience]]. One recent suggestion, proposed by the philosopher [[Daniel Dennett]], was initially developed when considering the problem of so-called 'free riders' in the [[tragedy of the commons]], a larger-scale version of the [[prisoner's dilemma]]. In [[game theory]] terms, a free rider is an [[agent]] who draws benefits from a co-operative society withouot contributing. In a one-to-one situation, free riding can easily be discouraged by a tit-for-tat strategy. But in a larger-scale society, where contributions and benefits are pooled and shared, they can be incredibly difficult to shake off. Imagine an elementary society of co-operative organisms. Co-operative agents interact with each other, each contributing resources and each drawing on the common good. Now imagine a [[rogue]] [[free rider]], an agent who draws a favor (\"you scratch my back\") and later refuses to return it. The problem is that free riding is always going to be beneficial to individuals at cost to society. How can well-behaved co-operative agents avoid being cheated? Over many generations, one obvious solution is for co-operators to evolve the ability to spot potential free riders in advance and refuse to enter into [[reciprocal]] arrangements with them. Then, the canonical free rider response is to evolve a more convincing [[disguise]], fooling co-operators into co-operating after pall. This can lead to an evolutionary [[arms race]]s, with ever-more-sophisticated disguises and ever-more-sophisticated detectors. In this evolutionary arms race, how best might one convince comrades that one ''really is'' a genuine co-operator, not a free rider in disguise? One answer is by ''actually making oneself'' a genuine co-operator, by erecting [[psychological barriers]] to breaking promises, and by advertising this fact to everyone else. In other words, a good solution is for organisms to evolve things that everyone knows will force them to be co-operators - and to make it obvious that they've evolved these things. So evolution will produce organisms who are sincerely moral and who wear their hearts on their sleeves; in short, evolution will give rise to the phenomenon of conscience. This theory, combined with ideas of [[kin selection]] and the one-to-one sharing of benefits, may explain how a blind and fundamentally selfish process can produce a genuinely non-cynical form of altruism thatq gives rise to the human conscience. Critics of such technical game theory analysis point out that it appears to forget that human beings are rational and emotional. To presume an analysis of human behaviour without including human rationale or emotion is necessarily unrealistically narrow, and treats human beings as if they are mere machines, sometimes called [[Homo economicus]]. Another objection is that often people donate anonymously, so that it is immpossible to determine if they really did the altruistic act. Beginning with an understanding that rational human beings benefit from living in a benign universe, logically it follows that particular human beings may gain substantial emotional satisfaction from acts which they perceive to make the world a better place. == Comparison of Altruism and Tit for Tat == Studying the simple strategy \"[[Tit for tat]]\" in the [[iterated prisoner's dilemma]] problem, [[game theory|game theorists]] argue that \"Tit for tat\" is much more successful in establisrhing stable [[cooperation]] among individuals than altruism, defined as ''unconditional'' cooperation, can ever be. \"Tit for tat\" starts with cooperation in the first step (as altruism does) and then just imitates the behaviour of the partner step by step. If the partner cooperates, then he ''rewards'' him with cooperation, if he doesn't, then he ''punishes'' him by not cooperating in the next step. Confronted with many strategies that try to exploit or abuse cooperation of others, this simple strategy surprisingly proved to be the most successful (see [[The Evolution of Cooperation]]). It was even more successful than these abusing strategies, while unconditional cooperativity (altruism) was one of the most unsuccessful strategies. Confronted with altruistic behaviour, Tit for tat is indistinguishable from pure altruism. [[Robert Axelrod]] and [[Richard Dawkins]] also showed that altruism may be harmful to society by nourishing exploiters and abusers (and making them more and more powerful usntil they can force everyone to cooperate unconditionally), which is not the case for \"Tit for tat\". (See also comparison of [[entrepreneur]] and [[entredonneur]]) In the context of [[biology]], the \"Tit for tat\" strategy is also called [[reciprocal altruism]]. ==Altruism in politics==
'''There is currently a [[WP:NPOV|POV]] [[WP:DR|dispute]] as to the wording of the section shown below.'''
If one is an adherent to the ''ethical doctrine'' called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), then one will support the kind of politics that one believes to be most effective in furthering the welfare of others, regardless of the effect this may have on oneself. Since there is no general consensus on what kind of politics results in the greatest benefit for others, different altruists may have very different political views. With regard to their political convictions, altrutists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe altruism is a matter of personal choice (and therefore selfishness can and should be tolerated), and those who believe that altruism is a moral ideal which should be embraced, if possible, by all human beings. A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is [[Lysander Spooner]], who, in ''Natural Law'', writes: \"''Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them.''\" The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that [[egoism]] should be actively discouraged, and that altruists have a duty not only to help other people, but to teach those people to help eachu other as well. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a [[left-wing]] stance, ranging from moderate [[social democracy]] to [[socialism]] or even [[communism]]. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of [[tax|taxation-funded]] government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example [[transfer payments]], such as [[social welfare]], or [[public healthcare]] and [[public education]]). Less obvious things such as a law that motorists pull over to let emergency vehicles pass may also be justified by appealing to the altruism ethic. Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things further and advocate some form of [[collectivism]] or [[communalism]]. On a somewhat related note, altruism is often held - even by non-altruists - to be the kind of ethic that should guide the actions of politicians and other people in positions of power. Such people are usually expected to set their own interests aside and serve the populace. When they do not, they may be critivcized as defaulting on what is believed to be an ethical obligation to place the interests of others above their own. Politicians often speak of a moral obligation of individuals to help others. For example, [[George Bush]], speaking to the [[United Nations]] said: \"We have a moral obligation to help others -- and a moral duty to make sure our actions are effective.\" If one is an adherent to the ''ethical doctrine'' called altruism (that people have an ethical obligation to help or further the welfare of others), it can become a moral justification for forcing, or advocating forcing individuals to help others. In the realm of politics, the altruist may employ an agent in the form of [[government]] to enforce this supposed moral obligation. This is not to say that an ethical altruist will ''necessarily'' force this on anyone. An altruist may allow others the freedom to behave in a manner they believe to be immoral or selfish. In other words, their ethical doctrine would not manifwest itself politically. With regard those who believe benevolence is a moral obligation, altruists may be divided in two broad groups: Those who believe helping others is a moral obligation but should not be enforced on individuals. And, those who believe that since helping others is a moral obligation, forcing individuals to help others if they are not willing on their own is justified. A prominent example of the former branch of altruist political thought is [[Lysander Spooner]], who, in ''Natural Law'', writes: \"''Man, no doubt, owes many other moral duties to his fellow men; such as to feed the hungry, clothe the naked, shelter the homeless, care for the sick, protect the defenceless, assist the weak, and enlighten the ignorant. But these are simply moral duties, of which each man must be his own judge, in each particular case, as to whether, and how, and how far, he can, or will, perform them.''\" The latter branch of altruist political thought, on the other hand, argues that [[egoism]] should bxe actively discouraged, and that individuals should be forced to help other people. Thus, in politics, these altruists almost always take a [[left-wing]] stance, ranging from moderate [[social democracy]] to [[socialism]] or even [[communism]]. Moderate altruists of this branch may argue for the creation of [[tax|taxation-funded]] government programs aimed at benefiting the needy (for example [[transfer payments]], such as [[social welfare]], or [[public healthcare]] and [[public education]]). Finally, radical altruists of this branch may take things to an extreme and advocate some form of state-enforced [[collectivism]], [[communalism]], or communism. This is in line with August Comte's philosophy (who coined the term altruism), which argues against individual rights. Finally, many believe that helping others or serving society is not a moral obligation at all, but that altrusm is an arbitrary pronouncement not philosophically derivable. These oppose all government-enforced charity. [[Individualist anarychist]] [[Pierre-Joseph Proudhon]] in 1847 warns of enforcing charity: \"That is why charity, the prime virtue of the Christian, the legitimate hope of the socialist, the object of all the efforts of the economist, is a social vice the moment it is made a principle of constitution and a law; that is why certain economists have been able to say that legal charity had caused more evil in society than proprietary usurpation\" (''The Philosophy of Poverty''). Comte asserts that individual rights are not compatible with the supposed obligation to serve others. Some argue that the ethical doctrine, if taken to its logical conclusion, leads to tyranny.
==Altruism and religion== {{sect-stub}} All the major world [[religion]]s promote altruism as a very important moral value. Christianity and Buddhism place particular emphasis on altruistic morality, as noted above, but [[Judaism]], [[Islam]] and [[Hinduism]] also promote altruistic behavior. ==See also== * [[Altruism (ethical doctrine)]] * [[Altruism in animals]] * [[Psychology]] * [[Euphemism]] * [[Will (law)]] * [[Trust (law)]] * [[Tit for tat]] * [[Reciprocal altruism]] ==External links== *[http://www.altruists.org/about/altruism What is Altruism? (Altruists International)] *[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/altruism-biological/ Biological Altruism ] *[http://www.humboldt.edu/~altruism/home.html The Altruistic Personality and Prosocial Behavior Institute at Humboldt State University] *[http://www.iipbaar.org International Institute for Prosocial Behavior and Altruism Research] ==References== *Batson, C.D. (1991). ''The altruism question''. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. *Fehr, E. & Fischbacher, U. ([[23 October]] [[2003]]). The nature of human altruism. In ''Nature, 425'', 785 – 791. *Comte, August, ''Catechisme positiviste'' (1852) or ''Catechism of Positivism'', tr. R. Congreve, (London: Kegan Paul, 1891) * Oord, Thomas Jay, Science of Love (Philadelphia: Templeton Foundation Press, 2004). *Nietzsche, Friedrich, ''Beyond Good and Evil'' *Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, ''The Philosophy of Poverty'' (1847) *Spooner, Lysander, ''Natural Law'' *Rand, Ayn, ''The Virtue of Selfishness'' *Oliner, Samuel P. and Pearl M. Towards a Caring Society: Ideas into Action. West Port, CT: Praeger, 1995. * ''[[The Evolution of Cooperation]]'', [[Robert Axelrod]], Basic Books, ISBN 0465021212 *''[[The Selfish Gene]]'', [[Richard Dawkins]] (1990), second edition -- includes two chapters about the evolution of cooperation, ISBN 0192860925 {{Philosophy navigation}} [[Category:Ethics]] [[Category:Evolutionary biology]] [[Category:philanthropy]] [[Category:Social philosophy]] [[Category:Social psychology]] [[Category:Sociology]] [[bg:Алтруизъм]] [[de:Altruismus]] [[es:Altruismo]] [[fr:Altruisme]] [[it:Altruismo]] [[he:זולתנות]] [[lt:Altruizmas]] [[nl:Altruïsme]] [[pl:Altruizm]] [[fi:Altruismi]] [[sv:Altruism]]utf-8|'s Bed-Stuy Barbershop: We Cut Heads''. Many of his films have focused on the interactions between modernity and tradition. His films have also tended to have a light-hearted comic tone which marks a break from the tragic historical realism which characterized Taiwanese filmmaking after the end of the martial law period in 1987. Lee's films also tend to draw on deep secrets and internal torment that begin to come to the surface such as the gay-themed films ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (1993), ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005), the martial arts epic ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (2000) and the comic book adaptation ''[[Hulk (film)|Hulk]]'' (2003) He received the Dartmouth Film Award in 2002, along with [[Meryl Streep]]. He taught filmmaking to actor [[Kai Christophe Wong]]. Lee's film ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005) won the best film award at the Venice International Film Festival, was named 2005's best film by the Los Angeles film critics. It also won the [[Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture - Drama]], with Lee winning the [[Golden Globe Award for Best Director - Motion Picture]]. His wife, Jane, is a microbiologist; they have two children, Haan and Mason. ==Films== * ''[[Brokeback Mountain]]'' (2005) * ''[[Hulk (film)|Hulk]]'' (2003) * ''[[The Hire]]'' (BMW Short Movies) - Chosen (2002) * ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (2000) * ''[[Ride with the Devil]]'' (1999) * ''[[The Ice Storm]]'' (1997) * ''[[Sense and Sensibility (film)|Sense and Sensibility]]'' (1995) * ''[[Eat Drink Man Woman]]'' (1994) * ''[[The Wedding Banquet]]'' (1993) * ''[[Pushing Hands (movie)|Pushing Hands]]'' (1992) ==External links== * {{imdb name|id=0000487|name=Ang Lee}} * [http://www.thecheappop.com/heath.html Ang Lee on Brokeback] {{film-bio-stub}} [[Category: 1954 births|Lee, Ang]] [[Category:Taiwanese film directors|Lee, Ang]] [[de:Ang Lee]] [[es:Ang Lee]] [[et:Ang Lee]] [[fi:Ang Lee]] [[fr:Ang Lee]] [[hr:Ang Lee]] [[it:Ang Lee]] [[ja:アン・リー]] [[nl:Ang Lee]] [[zh:李安]]utf-8 %L~ D][[Image:Ayn_Rand1.jpg|thumb|right|215px|[[Novelist]] and [[philosopher]], best known for her [[philosophy]] of [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]]]] '''Ayn Rand''' ({{IPA2|ajn ɹænd}}, {{OldStyleDate|February 2|1905|Ja~$}?D\#REDIRECT [[Auto racing]]utf-8L| D['''Ang Lee''' (Chinese: 李安; Pinyin: Lǐ Ān ) (born [[October 23]], [[1954]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[film director]] originally from [[Taiwan]]. He was born and raised in [[Pingtung County|Pingtung, Taiwan]] and educated in the [[United States]], where he found success as a [[Hollywood]] director, well-known for his [[wuxia]] film ''[[Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon]]'' (2000). He completed his bachelor's degree in Theater from the [[University of Illinois]] and received his [[MFA]] from [[New York University]]'s [[Tisch School of the Arts]], where in 1984 he made a thesis film called ''Fine Line''. He was a classmate of Spike Lee and worked on the crew of the latter Lee's thesis film, ''Joe{nuary 20}} – [[March 6]] [[1982]]), born '''Alissa Zinovievna Rosenbaum''', was best known for her [[philosophy]] of [[Objectivist philosophy|Objectivism]] and her novels ''[[We the Living]]'', ''[[Anthem (novel)|Anthem]]'', ''[[The Fountainhead]]'', and ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]''. Her philosophy and her fiction both emphasize, above all, her concepts of [[individualism]], rational [[egoism]] (\"[[Objectivist ethics|rational self-interest]]\"), and [[capitalism]]. Believing government has a legitimate but relatively minimal role in a free society, she was not an [[anarchist]], but a [[minarchist]] (though she did not use the term). Her novels were based upon the projection of the Randian [[hero]], a man whose ability and independence causes conflict with the masses (not due to his fault, but because he acts rationally and with his own self-interest at heart; the whole point of her philosophy is that there is no conflict between rational minds), but who perseveres nevertheless to achieve his values. Rand viewed this hero as the ideal and made it the express goal of her literature to showcase such heroes. She believed: *That man must choose his values and actions by reason; *That the individual has a right to exist for his own sake, neither sacrificing self to others nor others to self; and *That no one has the right to abridge the rights of others by physical force, or impose ideas on others by physical force. ==Biography== ===Early life=== Rand was born in [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russia]], and was the eldest of three daughters of a [[Jew]]ish family. Her parents were [[agnostic]] and largely non-observant. From an early age, she displayed a strong interest in literature and films. She started writing screenplays and novels from the age of seven. Her mother undertook to teach her French and subscribed to a magazine featuring stories for boys, where Rand found her first childhood hero: Cyrus Paltons, an Indian army officer in a [[Rudyard Kipling]]-style story called \"The Mysterious Valley\". Throughout her youth, she read the novels of [[Sir Walter Scott]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] and other Romantic writers, and expressed a passionate enthusiasm toward the Romantic movement as a whole. She discovered [[Victor Hugo]] at the age of thirteen, and fell deeply in love with his novels. Later, she would cite him as her favorite novelist and the greatest novelist of world literature. She studied philosophy and history at the [[Saint Petersburg State University|University of Petrograd]]. Her major literary discoveries in university were the works of [[Edmond Rostand]], [[Friedrich Schiller]] and [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]]. She admired Rostand for his richly romantic imagination and Schiller for his grand, heroic scale. She admired Dostoevsky for his sense of drama and his intense moral judgments, but was deeply against his philosophy and his sense of life. She continued to write short stories and screenplays and wrote sporadically in her diary, which contained intensely anti-Soviet ideas. She also encountered the philosophical ideas of [[Nietzsche]], and loved his exaltation of the heroic and independent individual in ''[[Thus Spoke Zarathustra]]''; nevertheless she was strongly critical of his philosophy, going so far as to attack it in the introductions of her novels. Her greatest influence by far is [[Aristotle]], especially his work ''Organon (Logic)''. She considered him the greatest philosopher ever, and stated that he was the only philosopher who had influenced her. She then entered the State Institute for Cinema Arts in 1924 to study screenwriting; in late 1925, however, she was granted a [[Visa (document)|visa]] to visit American relatives. She arrived in the [[United States]] in February 1926, at the age of twenty-one. After a brief stay with her relatives in [[Chicago, Illinois|Chicago]], she resolved never to return to the [[Soviet Union]], and set out for [[Hollywood]] to become a [[screenwriter]]. She then changed her name to \"Ayn Rand\". There is a story told that she named herself after the [[Remington Rand]] [[typewriter]], but she began using the name Ayn Rand before the typewriter was first sold. She stated that her first name, 'Ayn', was an adaptation of the name of a Finnish writer. This may have been the Finnish-Estonian author [[Aino Kallas]], but variations of this name are common in [[Finnish language|Finnish]]-speaking regions. ===Major works=== Initially, Rand struggled in [[Cinema of the United States|Hollywood]] and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. While working as an [[extra (drama)|extra]] on [[Cecil B. DeMille]]'s ''[[The King of Kings|King of Kings]]'', she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor, [[Frank O'Connor (actor)|Frank O'Connor]], who caught her eye. The two were married in 1929. In 1931, Rand became a [[naturalized citizen]] of the United States. Her first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay ''[[Red Pawn]]'' in 1932 to [[Universal Studios]]. Rand then wrote the play ''[[The Night of January 16th]]'' in 1934, which was highly successful, and published two novels, ''[[We the Living]]'' (1936), and ''[[Anthem (novella)|Anthem]]'' (1938). While ''We the Living'' met with mixed reviews in the U.S. and positive reviews in the U.K., ''Anthem'' received significiant and positive reviews only in England, due in part to its odd publication history. She was up against [[The Red Decade ]] in America, and ''Anthem'' did not even find a publisher in the United States; it was first published in England. Besides that, Rand had still not perfected her literary style and the novels cannot be considered fully representative. Without Rand's knowledge or permission, ''[[We The Living]]'' was made into a pair of films, ''Noi vivi'' and ''Addio, Kira'' in 1942 by Scalara Films, [[Rome]]. The films were nearly censored by the [[Italy|Italian]] government under [[Benito Mussolini]], but they were allowed to be featured because the novel upon which they were based was ostensibly anti-Soviet. The films were successful and the public easily realised that it was as much against Fascism as it was against Communism, and the government banned it quickly thereafter. These films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as ''We the Living'' in 1986. Rand's first major professional success came with her best-selling novel ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943), which she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel was rejected by twelve publishers, who thought it was too intellectual and opposed to the mainstream of American thought, and that there would be no public for it. It was finally accepted by the [[Bobbs-Merrill Company]] publishing house, thanks mainly to a member of the editorial board, Archibald Ogden, who praised the book in the highest terms and finally prevailed. Despite these initial struggles, ''The Fountainhead'' was a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. The theme of ''The Fountainhead'' is \"individualism and collectivism in man's soul\". It features the lives of five main characters. The hero, Howard Roark, is Rand's ideal, a noble soul ''par excellence'', an architect who is firmly and serenely devoted to his own ideals and believes that no man should copy the style of another in any field, and especially in architecture. All the other characters in the novel demand the renunciation of his values with varying degrees of intensity, but Roark maintains his integrity. A most interesting feature of Roark is that he does this unlike traditional heroes who launch into long and passionate monologues about their integrity and the unfairness of the world; Roark, by contrast, does it with a disdainful, almost contemptuous taciturnity and laconicism. Rand's [[magnum opus]], ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'', was published in 1957, becoming an international bestseller. ''Atlas Shrugged'' is often seen as Rand's most complete statement of the [[Objectivist philosophy]] in any of her works of fiction. In its appendix, she offered this summary: :\"My philosophy, in essence, is the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute.\" The theme of ''Atlas Shrugged'' is \"The role of man's mind in society\". Rand upheld the industrialist as one of the most admirable members of any society and fiercely opposed the popular resentment accorded to industrialists. This led her to envision a novel wherein the industrialists of America go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway. The American economy and its society in general slowly start to collapse. The government responds by increasing the already stifling controls on industrial concerns. The novel, despite having a political theme at its centre, deals with issues as complex and divergent as sex, music, medicine, and human ability. Along with [[Nathaniel Branden]], his wife [[Barbara Branden|Barbara]], and others including [[Alan Greenspan]] and [[Leonard Peikoff]], (jokingly designated \"[[The Ayn Rand Collective|The Collective]]\"), Rand launched the [[Objectivism|Objectivist]] movement to promote her philosophy. ===The Objectivist movement=== ''Main article: The [[Objectivist movement]]'' In 1950 Rand moved to [[New York City]], where in 1951 she met the young [[psychology]] student [[Nathaniel Branden]] [http://www.nathanielbranden.com], who had read her book, ''The Fountainhead'', at the age of 14. Branden, then 19, enjoyed discussing Rand's emerging Objectivist philosophy with her. Together, Branden and some of his other friends formed a group that they dubbed the [[Collective]], which included some participation by future Federal Reserve chairman [[Alan Greenspan]]. After several years, Rand and Branden's friendly relationship blossomed into a romantic affair, despite the fact that both were married at the time. This affair was accepted by their spouses but led to the separation and then divorce of [[Nathaniel Branden]] from his wife. Although one of Rand's most strident philosophical points was never to bow to societal pressure or norms, Ayn Rand abandoned her own name (see top of page), as did Branden (born Nathan Blumenthal). Throughout the [[1960s]] and [[1970s]], Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through both her fiction [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_fiction] and non-fiction [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_nonfiction] works, and by giving talks at several east-coast universities, largely through the [[Nathaniel Branden Institute]] (\"the NBI\") which Branden had established to promote her philosophy. After a convoluted series of separations, Rand abruptly ended her relationship with both Nathaniel Branden and his wife, [[Barbara Branden]], in 1968 when she learned of Nathaniel Branden's affair with Patrecia Scott (this later affair did not overlap chronologically with the earlier Branden/Rand affair). Rand refused to have any further dealings with the NBI. She then published a letter in \"The Objectivist\" announcing her repudiation of Branden for various reasons, including dishonesty, but did not mention their affair or her role in the schism. The two never reconciled, and Branden remained a ''persona non grata'' in the Objectivist movement. [[Image:ayn rand stamp.jpg|222px|frame|left|1999 U.S. [[postage stamp]] honoring Rand.]] Barbara Branden presented an account of the breakup of the affair in her book, ''The Passion of Ayn Rand.'' She describes the encounter between Nathaniel and Rand, saying that Rand slapped him numerous times, and denounced him in these words: \"If you have an ounce of morality left in you, an ounce of psychological health — you'll be impotent for the next twenty years! And if you achieve any potency, you'll know it's a sign of still worse moral degradation!\" Conflicts continued in the wake of the break with Branden and the subsequent collapse of the NBI. Many of her closest \"Collective\" friends began to part ways, and during the late 70's, her activities within the formal Objectivist movement began to decline, a situation which increased after the death of her husband in 1979. One of her final projects was work on a television adaptation of ''Atlas Shrugged''. Rand died of heart failure on [[March 6]], [[1982]] in [[New York City]], years after having successfully battled cancer, and was interred in the [[Kensico Cemetery]], [[Valhalla, New York]]. [[Image:Ayn_Rand_Marker.jpg|thumb|right|324px|Grave marker of [[Frank O'Connor (actor)|Frank O'Connor]] and Ayn Rand.]] ===Philosophical influences=== Rand rejected virtually all other philosophical schools. She acknowledged a shared intellectual lineage with [[Aristotle]] and [[John Locke]], and more generally with the philosophy of the [[Age of Enlightenment]] and [[Age of Reason]]. She occasionally remarked with approval on specific philosophical positions of, e.g., [[Baruch Spinoza]] and [[Thomas Aquinas]]. She seems also to have respected the American rationalist [[Brand Blanshard]]. However, she regarded most philosophers as at best incompetent and at worst downright evil. She singled out [[Immanuel Kant]] as the most influential of the latter sort. Nonetheless, there are connections between Rand's views and those of other philosophers. She acknowledged that she had been influenced at an early age by the writings of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Though she later repudiated his thought, and reprinted her first novel, ''[[We The Living]]'', with some wording changes in 1959, her own thought grew out of critical interaction with it. Generally, her political thought is in the tradition of [[classical liberalism]]. She expressed qualified enthusiasm for the economic thought of [[Ludwig von Mises]] and [[Henry Hazlitt]]. Though not mentioned as an influence by her specifically, parallels between her works and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson]]'s essay [[Self-Reliance]] do exist. Later Objectivists, such as [[Richard Salsman]], have claimed that Rand's economic theories are implicitly more supportive of the doctrines of [[Jean-Baptiste Say]], though Rand herself was likely not acquainted with his work. ===Politics and House Committee on Un-American Activities testimony=== Rand's political views were radically pro-[[capitalist]], [[anti-statist]], and [[anti-communist]]. Her writings praised above all the human individual and the creative genius of which one is capable. She exalted what she saw as the heroic [[American values]] of egoism and individualism. Rand also had a strong dislike for [[mysticism]], [[religion]], and compulsory [[charity]], all of which she believed helped foster a crippling culture of resentment towards individual human happiness and success. Rand detested many prominent [[liberalism|liberal]] and [[conservative]] politicians of her time, even including prominent anti-communist crusaders like Presidents [[Harry S. Truman]] and [[Ronald Reagan]] and Senators [[Hubert H. Humphrey]] and [[Joseph McCarthy]] (though she argued that \"[[McCarthyism]]\" was a myth, and that the accusation of McCarthyism was used as an [[ad hominem]] argument to discredit anti-communists). In 1947, during the [[Red Scare]], Rand testified as a \"friendly witness\" before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html]. Rand's testimony involved analysis of the 1943 film ''[[Song of Russia]]''. While many believe that Ayn Rand disclosed the names of members of the Communist Party in the U.S., thus exposing them to [[blacklisting]], her testimony consisted entirely of comments regarding the disparity between her experiences in the [[Soviet Union]] and the fanciful portrayal of it in the film. Rand argued that the movie grossly misrepresented the socioeconomic conditions in the Soviet Union. She told the committee that the film presented life in the USSR as being much better than it actually was. Apparently this 1943 film was intentional wartime [[propaganda]] by U.S. patriots, trying to put their Soviet allies in [[World War II]] under the best possible light. After the HUAC hearings, when Ayn Rand was asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of their investigations, she described the process as \"futile.\" ==Legacy== Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including [[Alan Greenspan]]. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. [http://www.eckerd.edu/aspec/writers/atlas_shrugged.htm] In 1985, [[Leonard Peikoff]], a surviving member of \"[[The Ayn Rand Collective|The Collective]]\" and Ayn Rand's designated heir, established \"The [[Ayn Rand Institute]]: The Center for the Advancement of Objectivism\". The Institute has since registered the name ''Ayn Rand'' as a trademark, despite Rand's desire that her name never be used to promote the philosophy she developed. Rand expressed her wish to keep her name and the philosophy of Objectivism separate to ensure the survival of her ideas. Another schism in the movement occurred in 1989, when Objectivist [[David Kelley]] wrote an article called \"A Question of Sanction,\" [http://www.wetheliving.com/boston/sanction.html] in which he defended his choice to speak to non-Objectivist [[Libertarianism|libertarian]] groups. Kelley wrote that Objectivism was not a \"closed system\" and should engage with other philosophies. Peikoff, in an article for ''[[The Intellectual Activist]]'' called \"Fact and Value\" [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=objectivism_f-v], argued that Objectivism is, indeed, a closed system, and that truth and moral goodness are intrinsically related. Peikoff expelled Kelley from his movement, whereupon Kelley founded The Institute for Objectivist Studies (now known as \"[[The Objectivist Center]]\"). Rand and Objectivism are less well known outside North America, though there are pockets of interest in Europe and Australia, and her novels are reported to be very popular in [[India]] ([http://www.theatlasphere.com/metablog/000058.php]) and to be gaining an increasingly wider audience in Africa. Her work has had little effect on academic philosophy, for her followers are, with some notable exceptions, drawn from the non-academic world. [[Neil Peart]], the drummer and lyricist with the Canadian progressive rock band [[Rush]], is a known purveyor of the ideas Rand espoused. The most notable instance of this is the album ''[[2112]]'', released in [[1976]]. ==Controversy== Rand's views are controversial. Religious and socially conservative thinkers have criticized her atheism. Many adherents and practitioners of [[continental philosophy]] would criticize her celebration of rationality and self-interest. Within the dominant philosophical movement in the English-speaking world, [[analytic philosophy]], Rand's work has been mostly ignored. No leading research university in this tradition considers Rand or Objectivism to be an important philosophical specialty or research area, as is documented by [[Brian Leiter]]'s report at [http://www.philosophicalgourmet.com/]. Some academics, however, are trying to bring Rand's work into the mainstream. For instance, there is an [http://www.aynrandsociety.org/ Ayn Rand Society], founded in 1987, affiliated with the [[American Philosophical Association]]. In 2006, [[Cambridge University Press]] will publish a volume on Rand's ethical theory written by ARI-affiliated scholar [[Tara Smith]]. A notable exception to the general lack of attention paid to Rand in the analytic community is the essay \"On the Randian Argument\" by [[Harvard University]] philosopher [[Robert Nozick]], which appears in his collection ''Socratic Puzzles''. Nozick's own [[libertarian]] political conclusions are similar to Rand's, but his essay is critical of her foundational argument in ethics, which claims that one's own life is, for each individual, the only ultimate value because it makes all other values possible. Nozick says that to make this argument sound, Rand still needs to explain why someone could not rationally prefer the state of eventually dying and having no values. Thus, he argues, her attempt to deduce the morality of selfishness is essentially an instance of assuming the conclusion or [[begging the question]] and that her solution to [[David Hume]]'s famous [[is-ought problem]] is unsatisfactory. Nevertheless, Nozick did respect Rand as an author and noted that he found her books enjoyable and thought-provoking. Rand has sometimes been viewed with suspicion for her practice of presenting her philosophy in fiction and non-fiction books aimed at a general audience rather than publishing in [[peer-review]]ed journals. Rand's defenders note that she is part of a long tradition of authors who wrote philosophically rich fiction — including [[Dante]], [[John Milton]], [[Fyodor Dostoevsky]], and [[Albert Camus]], and that other philosophers such as [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] presented their philosophies in both fictional and non-fictional forms. Other critics argue that Rand’s idealistic philosophy and her [[Romantic]] literary style are not applicable to the inhabited world. In particular, these critics claim that Rand's novels are made up of unrealistic and one-dimensional characters. They criticize the portrayal of the Objectivist heroes as incredibly intelligent, unencumbered by doubt, wealthy, and free of flaws, in contrast to the frequent portrayal of the antagonists as weak, pathetic, full of uncertainty, and lacking in imagination and talent. Defenders of Rand point out counterexamples to these criticisms: neither Eddie Willers nor Cherryl Taggart (both positive characters) is especially gifted or intelligent, but both are characters of dignity and respect; Leo Kovalensky suffers enormously due to his inability to cope with the brutality and banality of communism; Andrei Taganov dies after realizing his philosophical errors; Dominique Francon is initially bitterly unhappy because she believes evil is powerful; Hank Rearden is torn by inner emotional conflict brought on by a philosophical contradiction; and Dagny Taggart thinks that she is capable of saving the world alone. Two of her main protagonists, Howard Roark and John Galt, did not begin life as rich. Though Rand believed that, under capitalism, valuable contributions will routinely be rewarded by wealth, she certainly did not think that wealth made a person virtuous. In fact, she presents various vicious apparatchiks and plutocrats who use statism to enrich themselves (in a pragmatic, not a rational manner). Moreover, Hank Rearden is exploited because of his social naïveté. As for the purportedly weak and pathetic villains, Rand's defenders point out that Ellsworth Toohey is represented as being a great strategist and communicator from an early age, and Dr. Robert Stadler is a brilliant scientist. Rand herself replied to these literary criticisms (and in advance of much of them) with her essay \"The Goal of My Writing\" (1963). There, and in other essays collected in her book ''[[The Romantic Manifesto|The Romantic Manifesto: A Philosophy of Literature]]'' (2nd rev. ed. 1975), Rand makes it clear that her goal is to project her vision of an ideal man: not man as he is, but man as he might and ought to be. Rand's views on sex have also led to some controversy. According to her, \"For a woman ''qua'' woman, the essence of femininity is hero-worship – the desire to look up to man.\" (1968) Some in the [[BDSM]] community see her work as relevant and supportive, particularly ''The Fountainhead'' [http://www.mistressmorgana.com/site04/read_rec.html]. Another source of controversy is Rand's view that homosexuality is \"immoral\" and \"disgusting\" [http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/homo/atlasphere.htm], as well as her support for the right of businesses to discriminate on the basis of homosexuality in their hiring practices. Specifically, she stated that \"there is a psychological immorality at the root of homosexuality\" because \"it involves psychological flaws, corruptions, errors, or unfortunate premises\". There is some suggestion that she may have softened her stance on the morality of homosexuality later in life, citing the psychological complexities. As for prejudicial hiring, Rand's defenders offer that her support for its legality was motivated by holding property rights as inviolate, so it did not constitute an endorsement of the morality of the prejudice itself (Rand explicitly opposed some prejudices on moral grounds, especially in essays like \"Racism\" and \"Global Balkanization\"). [http://forum.objectivismonline.net/lofiversion/index.php/t2277.html]. In other words, she supported the right of a business to hire and fire at whim, as long as it was not under contractual agreement not to do so. ==Bibliography== ===Fiction=== * ''[[Night of January 16th]]'' (1934) * ''[[We The Living]]'' (1936) * ''[[Anthem (novel)|Anthem]]'' (1938) * ''[[The Fountainhead]]'' (1943) * ''[[Atlas Shrugged]]'' (1957) ====Posthumous fiction==== * ''Three Plays'' (2005) ===Nonfiction=== * ''For the New Intellectual'' (1961) * ''The Virtue of Selfishness'' (with [[Nathaniel Branden]]) ([[1964]]) * ''[[Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal]]'' (with [[Nathaniel Branden]], [[Alan Greenspan]], and [[Robert Hessen]]) ([[1966]]) * ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' (1967) * ''[[The Romantic Manifesto]]'' (1969) * ''The New Left: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' (1971) * ''Philosophy: Who Needs It'' (1982) ====Posthumous nonfiction==== * ''[[The Early Ayn Rand]]'' (edited and with commentary by [[Leonard Peikoff]]) ([[1984]]) * ''The Voice of Reason: Essays in Objectivist Thought'' (edited by [[Leonard Peikoff]]; additional essays by [[Leonard Peikoff]] and [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1989]]) * ''[[Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology]]'' second edition (edited by [[Harry Binswanger]]; additional material by [[Leonard Peikoff]]) ([[1990]]) * ''Letters of Ayn Rand'' (edited by [[Michael S. Berliner]]) ([[1995]]) * ''Journals of Ayn Rand'' (edited by [[David Harriman]]) ([[1997]]) * ''Ayn Rand's Marginalia : Her Critical Comments on the Writings of over Twenty Authors'' (edited by [[Robert Mayhew]]) ([[1998]]) * ''The Ayn Rand Column: Written for the Los Angeles Times'' (edited by [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1998]]) * ''Russian Writings on Hollywood'' (edited by [[Michael S. Berliner]]) ([[1999]]) * ''Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution'' (expanded edition of ''The New Left''; edited and with additional essays by [[Peter Schwartz]]) ([[1999]]) * ''The Art of Fiction'' (edited by [[Tore Boeckmann]]) ([[2000]]) * ''The Art of Nonfiction'' (edited by [[Robert Mayhew]]) ([[2001]]) * ''The Objectivism Research CD-ROM'' (collection of most of Rand's works in CD-ROM format) (2001) * ''Ayn Rand Answers'' (2005) ==References== In addition to Rand's own works (listed above), the following references discuss Rand's life and/or literary work. References that discuss her philosophy can be found in the [[bibliography of work on Objectivism]].
* {{Book reference | Last = Baker | First = James T. | Authorlink = James T. Baker | Title = Ayn Rand | Publisher = Twayne | Location = Boston | Year = 1987 | ID = ISBN 0-8057-7497-1 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Branden | First = Barbara | Authorlink = Barbara Branden | Title = The Passion of Ayn Rand | Publisher = Doubleday & Company | Location = Garden City, New York | Year = 1986 | ID = ISBN 0-385-19171-5 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Branden | First = Nathaniel | Authorlink = Nathaniel Branden | Title = My Years with Ayn Rand | Publisher = Jossey Bass | Location = San Francisco | Year = 1998 | ID = ISBN 0-7879-4513-7 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Branden | First = Nathaniel | Authorlink = Nathaniel Branden | Coauthors = [[Barbara Branden]] | Title = Who Is Ayn Rand? | Publisher = Random House | Location = New York | Year = 1962 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Britting | First = Jeff | Authorlink = Jeff Britting | Title = Ayn Rand | Publisher = Overlook Duckworth | Location = New York | Year = 2005 | ID = ISBN 1-58567-406-0 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Gladstein | First = Mimi Reisel | Authorlink = Mimi Reisel Gladstein | Title = The New Ayn Rand Companion | Publisher = Greenwood Press | Location = Westport, Connecticut | Year = 1999 | ID = ISBN 0-313-30321-5 }} * {{Book reference | Author = [[Mimi Reisel Gladstein|Gladstein, Mimi Reisel]] and [[Chris Matthew Sciabarra|Sciabarra, Chris Matthew]] (editors) | Title = Feminist Interpretations of Ayn Rand | Publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press | Location = University Park, Pennsylvania | Year = 1999 | ID = ISBN 0-271-01830-5 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Hamel | First = Virginia L.L. | Authorlink = Virginia L.L. Hamel | Title = In Defense of Ayn Rand | Publisher = New Beacon | Location = Brookline, Massachusetts | Year = 1990 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Mayhew | First = Robert | Authorlink = Robert Mayhew | Title = Ayn Rand and Song of Russia | Publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | Location = Lanham, Maryland | Year = 2004 | ID = ISBN 0-8108-5276-4 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Mayhew | First = Robert | Authorlink = Robert Mayhew | Title = Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem | Publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | Location = Lanham, Maryland | Year = 2005 | ID = ISBN 0-7391-1031-4 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Mayhew | First = Robert | Authorlink = Robert Mayhew | Title = Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living | Publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | Location = Lanham, Maryland | Year = 2004 | ID = ISBN 0-7391-0698-8 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Paxton | First = Michael | Authorlink = Michael Paxton | Title = Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life (The Companion Book) | Publisher = Gibbs Smith | Location = Layton, Utah | Year = 1998 | ID = ISBN 0-87905-845-5 }} * {{Journal reference | Last = Peikoff | First = Leonard | Authorlink = Leonard Peikoff | Title = My Thirty Years with Ayn Rand: An Intellectual Memoir | Journal = The Objectivist Forum | Volume = 8 | Issue = 3 | Year = 1987 | Pages = 1–16 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Rothbard | First = Murray N. | Authorlink = Murray N. Rothbard | Title = The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult | URL = http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html | Publisher = Liberty | Location = Port Townsend, Washington | Year = 1987 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Sures | First = Mary Ann | Authorlink = Mary Ann Sures | Coauthors = [[Charles Sures]] | Title = Facets of Ayn Rand | Publisher = Ayn Rand Institute Press | Location = Los Angeles | Year = 2001 | ID = ISBN 0-9625336-5-3 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Sciabarra | First = Chris Matthew | Authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra | Title = Ayn Rand: The Russian Radical | Location = University Park, Pennsylvania | Publisher = The Pennsylvania State University Press | Year = 1995 | ID = ISBN 0-271-01440-7 }} * {{Journal reference | Last = Sciabarra | First = Chris Matthew | Authorlink = Chris Matthew Sciabarra | Title = The Rand Transcript | URL = http://www.nyu.edu/projects/sciabarra/essays/randt2.htm | Journal = The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies | Volume = 1 | Issue = 1 | Year = 1999 | Pages = 1–26 }} * {{Journal reference  | Last = Shermer | First = Michael | Authorlink = Michael Shermer | URL = http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml | Title = The Unlikeliest Cult In History | Journal = Skeptic | Volume = 2 | Issue = 2 | Year = 1993 | Pages = 74–81 }} * {{Book reference | Author = [[William Thomas|Thomas, William]] (editor) | Title = The Literary Art of Ayn Rand | Location = Poughkeepsie, New York | Publisher = The Objectivist Center | Year = 2005 | ID = ISBN 1-577240-70-7 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Tuccile | First = Jerome | Authorlink = Jerome Tuccille | Title = It Usually Begins with Ayn Rand | Location = New York | Publisher = Fox & Wilkes | Year = 1997 | ID = ISBN 0930073258 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Valliant | First = James S. | Authorlink = James S. Valliant | Title = The Passion of Ayn Rand's Critics | Location = Dallas | Publisher = Durban House | Year = 2005 | ID = ISBN 1-930654-67-1 }} * {{Book reference | Last = Walker | First = Jeff | Authorlink = Jeff Walker | Title = The Ayn Rand Cult | Location = Chicago | Publisher = Open Court | Year = 1999 | ID = ISBN 0-8126-9390-6 }}
==External links== {{wikiquote}} {{wikisource author}} {{commons|Category:Ayn Rand}} '''General information''' * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/bio/biofaq.html Ayn Rand FAQ] * [http://www.aynrand.org/site/PageServer?pagename=about_ayn_rand_faq_index2 Frequently Asked Questions on Ayn Rand] * [http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/r/rand.htm \"Ayn Rand\" entry from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] '''Organizations promoting Ayn Rand's philosophy''' * [http://www.aynrand.org/ The Ayn Rand Institute] * [http://www.ariwatch.com/ ARI Watch] — Argues that some positions of the Ayn Rand Institute differ from those of Ayn Rand. * [http://www.objectivistcenter.org/ The Objectivist Center] * [http://www.capitalismcenter.org/ The Center for the Advancement of Capitalism] {{Philosophy portal}} '''Articles''' * [http://chronicle.com/colloquy/99/rand/background.htm ''Ayn Rand Has Finally Caught the Attention of Scholars''] by Jeff Sharlet * [http://www.mclemee.com/id39.html ''The Heirs of Ayn Rand'' by Scott McLemee] An article published in [[Lingua Franca]] which covers the arc of her publishing career, while alive and posthomous, as well as the continuing scholarship. * [http://www.johannhari.com/archive/article.php?id=756 'Don't give to tsunami victims - the message of the American right's philosopher-queen'] A critical profile from the London Independent * [http://www.lrb.co.uk/v27/n23/turn03_.html ''As Astonishing as Elvis'' by Jenny Turner] Essay review of ''Ayn Rand'' by Jeff Britting '''Articles critical of Ayn Rand''' * [http://www.2think.org/02_2_she.shtml ''The Unlikeliest Cult in History'' by Michael Shermer] * [http://world.std.com/~mhuben/critobj.html \"Extensive list of critical essays that Objectivists must answer\"] * [http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard23.html ''The Sociology of the Ayn Rand Cult'' by Murray Rothbard] Written in 1972, this was the first piece of Rand revisionism from the [[libertarian]] standpoint. {{seealso|Bibliography of work on Objectivism}} '''Rand's associates''' * [http://www.leonardpeikoff.com/ Leonard Peikoff's website] * [http://www.barbarabranden.com/ Barbara Branden's website] * [http://www.nathanielbranden.com/ Nathaniel Branden's website] '''Online groups and blogs''' * [http://www.theaynrandforum.com The Ayn Rand Forum] — An online forum for discussion of Ayn Rand and Objectivism. * [http://www.capmag.com/shownews.asp Dollars & Crosses] — Commentary for a pro-capitalist perspective. * [http://www.TIADaily.com/ TIA Daily] — Daily news and commentary from the Objectivist perspective by e-mail * [http://www.DrHurd.com/ Dr. Michael J. Hurd, psychologist] — The Daily Dose of Reason: psychology, life coaching and comments on cultural/political topics from an Objectivist perspective — also, The Living Resources Newsletter and Dr. Hurd's publications * [http://www.theatlasphere.com/ Ayn Rand Admirers] — The Atlasphere: Member directory, dating service, columns, and news for admirers of Rand's novels * [http://www.solopassion.com Sense of Life Objectivists] — Online columns and discussion, by and for Objectivists - hosted by Lindsay Perigo * [http://www.objectivismonline.net/ ObjectivismOnline.Net] — Contains [http://forum.objectivismonline.net/ forums], blogs, essays, chat room, and a [http://wiki.objectivismonline.net wiki on Objectivism] * [http://forums.4aynrandfans.com The Forum for Ayn Rand Fans] * [http://www.objectivistblogs.com Objectivist Blogs] — A list of Rand-influenced bloggers * [http://www.hblist.com Harry Binswanger List] — E-mail-based discussion group * [http://randex.org/ Randex] — Index of online media references to Ayn Rand and Objectivism * [http://www.objectivism.net Objectivism.net] — Ayn Rand on CD-ROM, and good links * [http://wiki.objectivismonline.net/ The Objectivism Wiki] * [http://www.aynrandstudies.com The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies] — Contains abstracts of articles, author bios, links to several articles, and submission guidelines. * [http://www.starshipaurora.com/aynrand100.html Ayn Rand 100 Tribute] — includes reference to a tribute album, \"Concerto of Deliverance\", inspired by Rand's words describing such music. '''Rand's writing and speeches''' * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/anthem/complete.html ''Anthem''] — The complete text of the novel, which has fallen into the public domain * [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-atlas-shrugged.asp ''Atlas Shrugged'' ] — Book outline * [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-fountainhead.asp ''The Fountainhead''] — Book outline * [http://www.ayn-rand.com/ayn-rand-we-the-living.asp ''We The Living''] — Book outline * [http://www.tracyfineart.com/usmc/philosophy_who_needs_it.htm \"Philosophy: Who Needs It?\"] — Address To The Graduating Class Of The United States Military Academy at West Point, New York - March 6, 1974 * [http://www.noblesoul.com/orc/texts/huac.html Rand's HUAC testimony] — Transcript * [http://www.libertyhaven.org/bookstore/B00004LC7UAMUS169912.shtml ''We the Living''] — Video outline * [http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/rand.asp Rand featured on C-Span's \"American Writers\"] — RealVideo discussions on Rand's writing * {{gutenberg author| id=Ayn+Rand | name=Ayn Rand}} * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/faidfrquery/r?faid/faidfr:@field(SOURCE+@band(rand+ayn)) Rand's papers at The Library of Congress] [[Category:1905 births|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:1982 deaths|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:20th century philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:American novelists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:American philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Anti-communism|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Aristotelian philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Atheists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Atheist philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Atheist thinkers and activists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Cat lovers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Epistemologists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Jewish Americans|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:LGBT rights opposition|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Minarchists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Moral philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Natives of Saint Petersburg|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Naturalized citizens of the United States|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Objectivists|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Philosophers of mind|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Political philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Pro-choice celebrities|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Russian philosophers|Rand, Ayn]] [[Category:Social justice|Rand, Ayn]] [[cs:Ayn Randová]] [[da:Ayn Rand]] [[de:Ayn Rand]] [[es:Ayn Rand]] [[fi:Ayn Rand]] [[fr:Ayn Rand]] [[he:איין ראנד]] [[ja:アイン・ランド]] [[nl:Ayn Rand]] [[nn:Ayn Rand]] [[no:Ayn Rand]] [[pl:Ayn Rand]] [[pt:Ayn Rand]] [[sk:Ayn Randová]] [[sv:Ayn Rand]] [[zh:艾茵·兰德]]utf-8The remarkable links between this subject, the tools he and others devised to tackle the problem and other subjects in [[theoretical physics]], [[particle physics]], and [[differential geometry]], made him emphasize [[Noncommutative geometry]] (which is also the title of his major book to date). He was awarded the [[Fields Medal]] in [[1982]], the [[Crafoord Prize]] in [[2001]] and the gold medal of the [[CNRS]] in 2004. ==See also== * [[cyclic homology]] * [[factor (functional analysis)]] * [[Higgs boson]] * [[C*-algebra]] * [[M Theory]] * [[Groupoid]] * [[Jean Louis Loday]] ==External links== * [http://www.alainconnes.org/ Alain Connes Official Web Site] * {{MacTutor Biography|id=Connes}} {{Fields medalists}} [[Category:1947 births|Connes, Alain]] [[Category:French mathematicians|Connes, Alain]] [[Category:Alumni of the École Normale Supérieure|Connes, Alain]] [[ar:ألان كن]] [[de:Alain Connes]] [[es:Alain Connes]] [[fr:Alain Connes]] [[ja:アラン・コンヌ]] [[pl:Alain Connes]]utf-8 +oD+wDa'''Allan Dwan''' ([[April 3]], [[1885 in film|1885]] – [[December 21]], [[1981 in film|1981]]) was a pioneering [[Canada|Canadian]]-born American [[film|motion picture]] [[film director|director]], producer and screenwriter. Born '''Joseph Aloysius Dwan''' in(GD`#REDIRECT [[Arithmetic mean]]utf-8+MD_#REDIRECT [[Applied statistics]]utf-8X%D^'''Alain Connes''' (born [[April 1]], [[1947]]) is a [[France|French]] [[mathematician]], currently Professor at the [[College de France]] ([[Paris]], [[France]]), [[IHES]] ([[Bures-sur-Yvette]], [[France]]) and [[Vanderbilt University]] ([[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]]). He is a specialist of [[Von Neumann algebra]]s and succeeded in completing the classification of [[factor]]s of these objects. Although his work in physics was not very convincing he tried to connect the planckian scales with what he called a \"2-brane\" Universe, model which was largely rejected by string theorists so far.  [[Toronto, Ontario]], [[Canada]], his family moved to the [[United States]] when he was eleven years of age. At university, he trained as an engineer and began working for a lighting company in [[Chicago, Illinois]]. However, he had a strong interest in the fledgling motion picture industry and when [[Essanay Studios]] offered him the opportunity to become a scriptwriter, he took the job. At that time, some of the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] movie makers began to spend winters in [[California]] where the climate allowed them to continue productions requiring warm weather. Soon, a number of movie companies worked there year-round and, in [[1911]], Dwan began working part time in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]. While still in New York, in [[1917 in film|1917]] he was the founding president of the East Coast chapter of the [[Motion Picture Directors Association]]. Allan Dwan became a true innovator in the motion picture industry. After making a series of westerns and comedies, he directed fellow Canadian, [[Mary Pickford]] in several very successful movies as well as her husband, [[Douglas Fairbanks, Sr.|Douglas Fairbanks]], notably in the acclaimed [[1922 in film|1922]] ''[[Robin Hood]]''. Following the introduction of the [[sound film|talkies]], in [[1937 in film|1937]] he directed child-star [[Shirley Temple]] in ''[[Heidi]]'' and ''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' the following year. Over his long and successful career spanning over fifty years, he directed over 400 motion pictures, many of them highly acclaimed, such as the [[1949 in film|1949]] box office smash, ''[[The Sands of Iwo Jima]]''. His last movie was in [[1961]]. Dwan is one of the directors who spanned the silent to sound era. Most of the silent movies he directed are lost due to poor preservation. Little historical writing has been devoted to Dwan, but some believe that he will be the last \"discovered\" great director from the [[Classic Hollywood Era]]. He died in Los Angeles at the age of ninety-six, and is interred in the [[San Fernando Mission Cemetery]], [[Mission Hills, California]]. Allan Dwan has a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] at 6263 Hollywood Boulevard in [[Hollywood, California|Hollywood]]. ==Selected films== As director: *''[[Manhattan Madness]]'' (1916) *''[[Fairbanks Fine Arts]]'' (1916) *''[[Fairbanks Fragments]]'' (1916-1918) also screenwriter *''[[Robin Hood (1922 film)|Robin Hood]]'' (1922) *''The Iron Mask'' (1929) *''[[Heidi]]'' (1937) *''[[Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm/The Little Colonel]]'' (1938) *''Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm'' (1938) *''[[The Three Musketeers (film)|The Three Musketeers]]'' (1939) *''The Gorilla'' (1939) *''[[Young People]]'' (1940) *''[[Look Who's Laughing]]'' (1941) also producer *''[[Friendly Enemies]]'' (1942) *''Around the World'' (1943) also producer *''[[Up in Mabel's Room]]'' (1944) *''[[Abroad With Two Yanks]]'' (1944) *''[[Getting Gertie's Garter]]'' (1945) also screenwriter *''[[Brewster's Millions]]'' (1945) *''Driftwood'' (1947) *''Calendar Girl'' (1947) *''[[Northwest Outpost]]'' (1947) also associate producer *''[[Sands of Iwo Jima]]'' (1949) *''[[Montana Belle]]'' (1952) *''[[Silver Lode (1954 film)|Silver Lode]]'' (1954) *''[[Passion (1954 movie)|Passion]]'' (1954) *''[[Cattle Queen of Montana]]'' (1954) *''[[Tennessee's Partner]]'' (1955) *''[[Pearl of the South Pacific]]'' (1955) *''[[Escape to Burma]]'' (1955) *''[[Slightly Scarlet]]'' (1956) *''[[The Restless Breed]]'' (1957) *''[[Enchanted Island]]'' (1958) See also: [[Canadian pioneers in early Hollywood]] ==External link== *{{imdb name|id=0245385|name= Allan Dwan}} [[Category:1885 births|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:1981 deaths|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Roman Catholics|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:American film directors|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:American film producers|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:American screenwriters|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Hollywood Walk of Fame|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Ontario writers|Dwan, Allan]] [[Category:Torontonians|Dwan, Allan]] [[de:Allan Dwan]]utf-8 o@g8I Dl#REDIRECT [[History of Algeria]] :''See also :'' [[Algeria]]utf-8. SDk#REDIRECT [[Archeology of Algeria]]utf-88 gDj#REDIRECT [[Transnational issues of Algeria]]utf-8, ODi#REDIRECT [[Military of Algeria]]utf-82 [Dh#REDIRECT [[Transportation in Algeria]]utf-82[Dg#REDIRECT [[Communications in Algeria]]utf-8RDf{{update}} {{cleanup-date|December 2005}} {{Economy of Algeria table}} In the '''economy of Alg,ODe#REDIRECT [[Politics of Algeria]]utf-80WDd#REDIRECT [[Demographics of Algeria]]utf-8-QDc#REDIRECT [[Geography of Algeria]]utf-8+MDb#REDIRECT [[History of Algeria]]utf-8eria''' the [[hydrocarbons]] sector is the backbone, accounting for roughly 52% of budget revenues, 25% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. [[Algeria]] has the fifth-largest reserves of [[natural gas]] in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks fourteenth for oil reserves. Algiers' efforts to reform one of the most centrally planned economies in the Arab world stalled in [[1992]] as the country became embroiled in political turmoil. Burdened with a heavy foreign debt, Algiers concluded a one-year standby arrangement with the [[International Monetary Fund]] in April [[1994]] and the following year signed onto a three-year extended fund facility which ended [[30 April]], [[1998]]. Some progress on economic reform, [[Paris Club]] [[debt rescheduling]]s in [[1995]] and [[1996]], and oil and gas sector expansion contributed to a recovery in growth since 1995, reducing inflation to approximately 1% and narrowing the budget deficit. Algeria's economy has grown at about 4% annually since [[1999]]. The country's foreign debt has fallen from a high of $28 billion in [[1999]] to its current level of $24 billion. The spike in oil prices in [[1999]]-[[2000]] and the government's tight fiscal policy, as well as a large increase in the trade surplus and the near tripling of foreign exchange reserves has helped the country's finances. However, an ongoing drought, the after effects of the [[November 10]], [[2001]] floods and an uncertain oil market make prospects for [[2002]]-[[2003|03]] more problematic. The government pledges to continue its efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector. However, it has thus far had little success in reducing high unemployment, officially estimated at 30% and improving living standards. [[President Bouteflika]] has announced sweeping economic reforms, which, if implemented, will significantly restructure the economy. Still, the economy remains heavily dependent on volatile oil and gas revenues. The government has continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector, but has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. Other priority areas include banking reform, improving the investment environment, and reducing government bureaucracy. The government has announced plans to sell off state enterprises: sales of a national cement factory and steel plant have been completed and other industries are up for offer. In 2001, Algeria signed an Association Agreement with the [[European Union]]; it has started accession negotiations for entry into the [[World Trade Organization]]. ===[[Agriculture]]=== Since Roman times Algeria has been noted for the fertility of its soil. About a quarter of the inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits. More than 7,500,000 acres (30,000 km²) are devoted to the cultivation of [[cereal grain]]s. The Tell is the grain-growing land. During the time of [[France|French]] rule its productivity was increased substantially by the sinking of [[Artesian aquifer|artesian well]]s in districts which only required water to make them fertile. Of the crops raised, [[wheat]], [[barley]] and [[oat]]s are the principal cereals. A great variety of [[vegetable]]s and of [[fruit]]s, especially [[citrus]] products, is exported. A considerable amount of [[cotton]] was grown at the time of the [[United States]]' [[American Civil War|Civil War]], but the industry declined afterwards. In the early years of the 20th century efforts to extend the cultivation of the plant were renewed. A small amount of [[cotton]] is also grown in the southern oases. Large quantities of [[crin vegetal]] (vegetable horse-hair) an excellent fibre, are made from the leaves of the dwarf palm. The [[olive]] (both for its fruit and [[Petroleum]]) and [[tobacco]] are cultivated with great success. Algeria also exports [[fig]]s, [[date (fruit)|date]]s, [[esparto]] grass, and [[cork (material)|cork]]. ====Wine Production==== Throughout Algeria the soil favours the growth of vines. The country, in the words of an expert sent to report on the subject by the French government, :\"can produce an infinite variety of wines suitable to every constitution and to every caprice of taste.\" The growing of vines was undertaken early by the colonists, but it was not until vineyards in [[France]] were attacked by [[phylloxera]] that the export of [[wine]] from Algeria became significant. In [[1883]], despite precautionary measures, Algerian [[vineyard]]s were also attacked but in the meantime the quality of their wines had been proved. In 1850 less than 2000 acres (8 km²) were devoted to the grape, but in 1878 this had increased to over 42,000 acres (170 km²), which yielded 7,436,000 gallons (28,000 m³) of wine. Despite bad seasons and ravages of insects, cultivation extended, and in 1895 the vineyards covered 300,000 acres (1,200 km²), the produce being 88,000,000 gallons (333,000 m³). The area of cultivation in 1905 exceeded 400,000 acres (1,600 km²), and in that year the amount of wine produced was 157,000,000 gallons (594,000 m³). By that time the limits of profitable production had been reached in many parts of the country. Practically the only foreign market for Algerian wine is France, which in 1905 imported about 110,000,000 gallons (416,000 m³). ===Fishing=== Fishing is a flourishing but minor industry. Fish caught are principally [[sardine]]s, [[bonito]], [[smelt]] and [[sprat]]s. Fresh fish are exported to [[France]], dried and preserved fish to [[Spain]] and [[Italy]]. Coral [[fishery|fisheries]] are found along the coast from [[Bona]] to [[Tunis]]. ===Minerals=== Algeria is rich in minerals; the country has many [[iron]], [[lead]] and [[zinc]], [[copper]], [[calamine]], [[antimony]] and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]] mines. The most productive are those of iron and zinc. Lignite is found in Algiers; immense [[phosphate]] beds were discovered near [[Tebessa]] in 1891, yielding 313,500 tons in 1905. Phosphate beds are also worked near [[Setif]], [[Guelma]] and [[Ain Beida]]. There are more than 300 quarries which produce, amongst other stones, [[onyx]] and beautiful white and red [[marble]]s. Algerian onyx from Ain Tekbalet was used by the Romans, and many ancient quarries have been found near [[Kleber]], some being certainly those from which the long-lost Numidian marbles were taken. [[Salt]] is collected on the margins of the chotts. ==Foreign Trade== Under French administration the commerce of Algeria developed greatly: the total imports and exports at the time of the French occupation (1830) did not exceed £ 175,000. In 1850 the figures had reached £ 5,000,000; in 1868, £ 12,000,000; in 1880, £ 17,000,000; and in 1890, £ 20,000,000. From this point progress was slower and the figures varied considerably year by year. In 1905 the total value of the foreign trade was £ 24,500,000. About five-sixths of the trade is with or via France, into which country several Algerian goods have been admitted duty-free since 1851, and all since 1867. French goods, except [[sugar]], have been admitted into Algeria without payment of duty since 1835. After the increase, in 1892, of the French minimum tariff, which applied to Algeria also, foreign trade greatly diminished. By far Algeria's most significant exports, financially, are [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]]. The reserves are mostly in the Eastern [[Sahara]]; the Algerian government curbed the exports in the 1980s to slow depletion; exports increased again somewhat in the [[1990|1990s]]. Other significant exports are [[domestic sheep|sheep]], [[ox]]en, and [[horse]]s; animal products, such as [[wool]] and skins; [[wine]], cereals ([[rye]], [[barley]], [[oat]]s), [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s (chiefly [[fig]]s and [[grape]]s for the table) and [[seed]]s, [[esparto]] grass, oils and vegetable extracts (chiefly [[olive oil]]), [[iron]] ore, [[zinc]], natural [[phosphate]]s, [[timber]], [[Cork (material)|cork]], [[crin vegetal]] and [[tobacco]]. The import of [[wool]] exceeds the export. [[Sugar]], [[coffee]], machinery, metal work of all kinds, clothing and pottery are largely imported. Of these by far the greater part comes from France. The [[United Kingdom|British]] imports consist chiefly of [[coal]], cotton fabrics and machinery. ===Exports=== Algeria trades most extensively with France and [[Italy]], in terms of both imports and exports, but also trades with the United States and [[Spain]]. ===Statistics=== ==Reference== *[http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html CIA World Factbook] :''See also :'' [[Algeria]] {{OPEC}} [[Category:Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|Alegeria]] [[Category:Economies by country|Algeria]] [[Category:Economy of Algeria| ]] [[fr:Économie de l'Algérie]] [[pt:Economia da Argélia]]utf-8tm=42|latNS=N|longd=3|longm=13|longEW=E| largest_city = [[Algiers]] | government_type= Democratic [[Republic]] | leader_titles = [[President of Algeria|President]]
[[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] | leader_names = [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]
[[Ahmed Ouyahia]] | area_rank = 11th | area_magnitude = ? | area=2,381,740| percent_water = ? | population_estimate = 32,531,853 | population_estimate_year = 2005 | population_estimate_rank = 37th | population_census= ? | population_census_year= ? | population_density = 13.3 | population_density_rank= ? | GDP_PPP_year= ? | GDP_PPP = ? | GDP_PPP_rank = ? | GDP_PPP_per_capita = ? | GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = ? | HDI_year = 2003 | HDI = 0.722 | HDI_rank = 103rd | HDI_category = medium | sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]| established_events =  • Declared | established_dates = From [[France]]
[[July 5]], [[1962]] | currency = [[Algerian dinar]] | currency_code = DA | time_zone= [[Central European Time|CET]] | utc_offset= +1 | time_zone_DST= [[Central European Time|CET]]1 | utc_offset_DST= +1 | cctld= [[.dz]] | calling_code = 213 | footnotes = 1 There is no DST in Algeria. }} The '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية''') , or '''Algeria''' ([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: '''الجزائر'''), is a presidential state in [[north Africa]], and the second largest country on the [[Africa]]n continent, [[Sudan]] being the largest. It is bordered by [[Tunisia]] in the northeast, [[Libya]] in the east, [[Niger]] in the southeast, [[Mali]] and [[Mauritania]] in the southwest, and [[Morocco]] as well as a few kilometers of its annexed territory, [[Western Sahara]], in the west. [[Constitution of Algeria|Constitutionally]], it is defined as an [[Islam]]ic, [[Arab]], and [[Amazigh]] (Berber) country. The name Algeria is derived from the name of the city of [[Algiers]], from the [[Arabic language|Arabic]] word ''al-jazā’ir'', which translates as ''the islands'', referring to the four islands which lay off that city's coast until becoming part of the mainland in 1525. ==History== ''Main article: [[History of Algeria]]'' Algeria has been inhabited by [[Berber]]s (or Amazigh) since at least [[10,000 BC]]. From [[1000 BC]] on, the [[Carthage|Carthaginians]] became an influence on them, establishing settlements along the coast. Berber kingdoms began to emerge, most notably [[Numidia]], and seized the opportunity offered by the Punic Wars to become independent of Carthage, only to be taken over soon after by the [[Roman Republic]] in 200 BC. As the western [[Roman Empire]] collapsed, the Berbers became independent again in much of the area, while the [[Vandals]] took over parts until later expelled by the generals of the [[Byzantine Emperor]], [[Justinian I]]. The [[Byzantine Empire]] then retained a precarious grip on the east of the country until the coming of the [[Arab]]s in the [[8th century]]. [[Image:Roman Arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria 04966r.jpg|thumb|left|Roman arch of Trajan at Thamugadi (Timgad), Algeria]] After some decades of fierce resistance under leaders such as [[Kusayla]] and [[Kahina]], the Berbers adopted [[Islam]] ''en masse'', but almost immediately expelled the [[Caliphate]] from Algeria, establishing an [[Ibadi]] state under the [[Rustamid]]s. Having converted the [[Kutama]] of [[Kabylie]] to its cause, the [[Shia]] [[Fatimid]]s overthrew the Rustamids, and conquered Egypt. They left Algeria and Tunisia to their [[Zirid]] vassals; when the latter rebelled and adopted [[Sunni]]sm, they sent in a populous [[Arab]] tribe, the [[Banu Hilal]], to weaken them, thus incidentally initiating the [[Arabization]] of the countryside. The [[Almoravid]]s and [[Almohad]]s, Berber dynasties from the west founded by religious reformers, brought a period of relative peace and development; however, with the Almohads' collapse, Algeria became a battleground for their three [[successor state]]s, the Algerian [[Zayyanid]]s, Tunisian [[Hafsid]]s, and Moroccan [[Merinid]]s. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, [[Spain]] started attacking and taking over many coastal cities, prompting some to seek help from the [[Ottoman Empire]]. Algeria was brought into the Ottoman Empire by [[Khair ad Din|Khair ad-Din]] and his brother [[Aruj]], who established Algeria's modern boundaries in the north and made its coast a base for the [[Privateer|corsairs]]; their privateering peaked in Algiers in the 1600s. Piracy on American vessels in the Mediterranean resulted in the [[First Barbary War|First]] and [[Second Barbary War]] with the [[United States]]. On the pretext of a slight to their consul, the [[France|French]] invaded Algiers in 1830; however, intense resistance from such personalities as [[Emir Abdelkader]], [[Ahmed Bey]] and [[Lalla Fatma N'Soumer|Fatma N'Soumer]] made for a slow conquest of Algeria, not technically completed until the early 1900s when the last [[Tuareg]] were conquered. [[Image:Constantine Algerien 002.jpg|thumb|left|Constantine, Algeria 1840]] Meanwhile, however, the French suppressed slavery and made Algeria an integral part of France, a status that would end only with the collapse of the [[French Fourth Republic|Fourth Republic]]. Tens of thousands of settlers from France, Italy, Spain, and Malta moved in to farm the Algerian coastal plain and occupy the most prized parts of Algeria's cities, benefiting from the French government's confiscation of communally held land. People of European descent in Algeria (the so-called ''[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]''), as well as the native Algerian Jews, were full French citizens starting from the end of the 19th century; by contrast, the vast majority of Muslim Algerians (even veterans of the French army) remained outside of French law, possessing neither French citizenship nor the right to vote. Algeria's social fabric was stretched to breaking point during this period: literacy dropped massively, while land confiscation uprooted much of the population. In 1954, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) launched the [[guerrilla warfare|guerrilla]] [[Algerian War of Independence]]; after nearly a decade of urban and rural warfare, they succeeded in pushing France out in 1962. Most of the 1,025,000 ''[[pied-noir|pieds-noirs]]'', as well as 91,000 ''[[harki]]s'' (pro-French Muslim Algerians serving in the French Army), together forming about 10% of the population of Algeria in 1962, fled Algeria for France in just a few months in the middle of that year. [[Image:TheBattleofAlgiers.png|thumb|right|''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' is a movie about the [[Algerian War of Independence]].]] Algeria's first president, the FLN leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]], was overthrown by his former ally and defense minister, [[Houari Boumédiènne]] in 1965. Under Ben Bella the government had already become increasingly socialist and dictatorial, and this trend continued throughout Boumedienne's government; however, Boumedienne relied much more heavily on the army, and reduced the sole legal party to a merely symbolic role. Agriculture was collectivised, and a massive industrialization drive launched. Oil extraction facilities were nationalized and this increased the state's wealth, especially after the 1973 oil crisis, but the Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, bringing hardship when the price collapsed in the 1980s. In foreign policy Algeria was a member and leader of the 'non-aligned' nations. A dispute with Morocco over the [[Western Sahara]] nearly led to war. Dissent was rarely tolerated, and the state's control over the media and the outlawing of political parties other than the FLN was cemented in the repressive constitution of 1976. Boumédienne died in 1978, but the rule of his successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], was little more open. The state took on a strongly bureaucratic character and corruption was widespread. The modernization drive brought considerable demographic changes to Algeria. Village traditions underwent significant change as urbanization increased, new industries emerged, agriculture was substantially reduced, and education, a rarity in colonial times, was extended nationwide, raising the literacy rate from less than 10% to over 60%. Improvements in healthcare led to a dramatic increase in the birthrate (7-8 children per mother) which had two consequences: a very youthful population, and a housing crisis. The new generation struggled to relate to the cultural obsession with the war years and two conflicting protest movements developed: left-wingers, including Berber identity movements, and Islamic 'intégristes'. Both protested against one-party rule but also clashed with each other in universities and on the streets during the 1980s. Mass protests from both camps in autumn 1988 forced Benjedid to concede the end of one-party rule, and elections were announced for 1991. In December 1991, the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] won the [[Algerian National Assembly elections, 1991|first round]] of the country's first multiparty elections. The military then canceled the second round, forced then-president Bendjedid to resign, and banned the Islamic Salvation Front. The ensuing conflict engulfed Algeria in the violent [[Algerian Civil War]]. More than 100,000 people were killed, often in unprovoked massacres of civilians. The question of who was responsible for these massacres remains controversial among academic observers; many were claimed by the [[Armed Islamic Group]]. After 1998, the war waned, and by 2002 the main guerrilla groups had either been destroyed or surrendered, taking advantage of an amnesty program, though sporadic fighting continued in some areas. Elections resumed in 1995, and in 1999, after a series of short-term leaders representing the military, [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]], the current president, was elected. The issue of Berber language and identity increased in significance, particularly after the extensive [[Kabyle]] protests of 2001 and the near-total boycott of local elections in [[Kabylie]]; the government responded with concessions including naming of [[Tamazight]] (Berber) as a national language and teaching it in schools. ==Politics== ''Main article: [[Politics of Algeria]]'' The head of state is the [[President of Algeria|President of the republic]], who is elected to a 5-year term, renewable once. Algeria has [[universal suffrage]]. The President is the head of the Council of Ministers and of the High Security Council. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government. The Prime Minister appoints the Council of Ministers. The Algerian [[parliament]] is bicameral, consisting of a lower chamber, the National People's Assembly (APN), with 380 members and an upper chamber, the Council of Nation, with 144 members. The APN is elected every 5 years. Throughout the 1960's, Algeria supported many independence movements in sub-Saharan Africa, and was a leader in the [[Non-Aligned Movement]]. While it shares much of its history and cultural heritage with neighbouring [[Morocco]], the two countries have had somewhat hostile relations with each other since Algeria's independence. This is due to two reasons: Morocco's claim to portions of eastern Algeria around [[Touat]] (which led to the [[Sand war]] in 1963), and Algeria's support for the Polisario, a clandestine armed group seeking independence for the Moroccan-ruled [[Western Sahara]], which it hosts within its borders in the city of [[Tindouf]]. Tensions between Algeria and Morocco, as well as issues relating to the [[Algerian Civil War]], have put great obstacles in the way of tightening the [[Maghreb Arab Union]], nominally established in 1989 but with little practical weight, with its coastal neighbors. ==Provinces== ''Main article: [[Provinces of Algeria]]'' Algeria is divided into 48 ''[[Wilayah|wilayas]]'' ([[provinces]]):- {| |- | *1 [[Adrar (Algerian province)|Adrar]] *2 [[Aïn Defla]] *3 [[Aïn Témouchent]] *4 [[Algiers|Alger]] *5 [[Annaba (province)|Annaba]] *6 [[Batna (province)|Batna]] *7 [[Béchar]] *8 [[Béjaïa (province)|Béjaïa]] *9 [[Biskra (province)|Biskra]] *10 [[Blida]] *11 [[Bordj Bou Arréridj (province)|Bordj Bou Arréridj]] *12 [[Bouira]] *13 [[Boumerdès]] *14 [[Chlef]] *15 [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] *16 [[Djelfa (province)|Djelfa]] *17 [[El Bayadh]] | *18 [[El Oued (province)|El Oued]] *19 [[El Tarf]] *20 [[Ghardaïa]] *21 [[Guelma]] *22 [[Illizi]] *23 [[Jijel]] *24 [[Khenchela]] *25 [[Laghouat]] *26 [[Mila]] *27 [[Mostaganem (province)|Mostaganem]] *28 [[Medea]] *29 [[Muaskar]] *30 [[M'Sila]] *31 [[Naama]] *32 [[Oran]] *33 [[Ouargla]] | *34 [[Oum el-Bouaghi]] *35 [[Relizane]] *36 [[Saida (province)|Saida]] *37 [[Sétif]] *38 [[Sidi Bel Abbes]] *39 [[Skikda]] *40 [[Souk Ahras]] *41 [[Tamanrasset]] *42 [[Tébessa]] *43 [[Tiaret]] *44 [[Tindouf]] *45 [[Tipaza]] *46 [[Tissemsilt]] *47 [[Tizi Ouzou]] *48 [[Tlemcen]] | |[[Image:Algeria provinces.png|right|250px|Map of the provinces of [[Algeria]] in alphabetical order.]] |} ==Geography== ''Main article: [[Geography of Algeria]]'' [[Image:Algeria map.png|220px|right|Map of Algeria with cities]] [[Image:Hoggar3.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Ahaggar Mountains|Hoggar]] Mountains]] Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are few good harbours. The area just south of the coast, known as the [[Tell]], is fertile. Further south is the [[Atlas mountains|Atlas mountain]] range and the [[Sahara]] desert. [[Algiers]], [[Oran]] and [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] are the main cities. Algeria's [[climate]] is arid and hot, although the coastal climate is mild, and the winters in the mountainous areas can be severe. Algeria is prone to [[sirocco]], a hot dust- and sand-laden wind especially common in summer. ''See also'': [[Extreme points of Algeria]] ==Economy== ''Main article: [[Economy of Algeria]]'' [[Image:Unknown origin coin2.JPG|thumb|left|150px|Algerian coins]] The [[hydrocarbons]] sector is the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of [[Gross domestic product|GDP]], and over 95% of export earnings. Algeria has the fifth-largest reserves of [[natural gas]] in the world and is the second largest gas exporter; it ranks 14th in [[Petroleum]] reserves. Algeria’s financial and economic indicators improved during the mid-1990s, in part because of policy reforms supported by the IMF and debt rescheduling from the [[Paris Club]]. Algeria’s finances in 2000 and 2001 benefited from an increase in oil prices and the government’s tight fiscal policy, leading to a large increase in the trade surplus, record highs in foreign exchange reserves, and reduction in foreign debt. The government's continued efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector has had little success in reducing high unemployment and improving living standards. In 2001, the government signed an Association Treaty with the [[European Union]] that will eventually lower tariffs and increase trade. ==Demographics== [[Image:Algiers coast.jpg|thumb|[[Algiers]] coast]] ''Main article: [[Demographics of Algeria]]'' About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the minority who inhabit the [[Sahara desert]] are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5 million remain [[nomad]]ic or partly nomadic. Ninety-nine percent of the population is classified ethnically as [[Arab]]/[[Berber]], and religiously as [[Muslim]]; other religions are restricted to extremely small groups, mainly of foreigners. Europeans account for less than 1%. Most Algerians are Arab by language and identity, and of mixed Berber-Arab ancestry. The Berbers inhabited Algeria before the arrival of Arab tribes during the expansion of Islam, in the 7th century. The issue of ethnicity and language is sensitive after many years of government discrimination against the Berber minority (who refers to itself not as Berber, but as [[Imazighen]]). Today, the Arab-Berber issue is often a case of self-identification or identification through language and culture, rather than a racial or ethnic distinction. The 20% or so of the population who self-identify as Berbers, and primarily speak Berber languages (such as [[Tamazight]]), are divided into several ethnic groups, notably [[Kabyle]] (the largest) in the mountainous north-central area, [[Chaoui]] in the eastern [[Atlas Mountains]], [[Mozabite]]s in the [[M'Zab]] valley, and [[Tuareg]] in the far south. ==Language== ''Main article: [[Languages of Algeria]]'' The [[official language]] is [[Arabic language|Arabic]], spoken natively in dialectal form (\"[[Algerian Arabic|Darja]]\") by some 80% of the population; the other 20% or so speak [[Berber]] ([[Tamazight]]), officially a [[national language]]. [[French language|French]] is widely known from schools, but is very rare as a [[native language]]. The French language has also suffered from the government's arabization policy. ==Culture== [[Image:Algiers mosque.jpg|thumb|mosque in Algiers]] ''Main article: [[Culture of Algeria]]'' Modern Algerian literature, split between Arabic and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]] and [[Kateb Yacine]], while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Important novelists of the 1980s included [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of Amnesty International, and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views. As early as Roman times, [[Apuleius]], born in [[Mdaourouch]], was native to what would become Algeria. In philosophy and the humanities, [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization]], while [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (about 60 miles from the present day city of [[Annaba]]), and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria. Algerian culture has been strongly influenced by [[Islam in Algeria|Islam]], the main religion. The works of the [[Sanusi]] family in precolonial times, and of Emir [[Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The [[Music of Algeria|Algerian musical]] genre best known abroad is [[raï]], a pop-flavored, opinionated take on folk music, featuring international stars such as [[Khaled]] and [[Cheb Mami]]. However, in Algeria itself the older, highly verbal [[chaabi]] style remains more popular, with such stars as [[El Hadj El Anka]] or [[Dahmane El Harrachi]], while the tuneful melodies of [[Kabyle]] music, exemplified by [[Idir]], [[Ait Menguellet]], or [[Lounès Matoub]], have a wide audience. For more classical tastes, [[Andalusian classical music|Andalusi music]], brought from [[Al-Andalus]] by [[Morisco]] refugees, is preserved in many older coastal towns. In painting, [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[M'hemed Issiakhem]] are notable in recent years. ==Miscellaneous topics== * [[Archeology of Algeria]] * [[Communications in Algeria]] * [[Foreign relations of Algeria]] * [[List of Algeria-related topics]] * [[List of cities in Algeria]] * [[List of Algerians]] * [[List of sovereign states]] * [[Military of Algeria]] * [[Transportation in Algeria]] * ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]'' movie * [[Algerian War of Independence]] (1954-1962) * [[Algerian Civil War]] (1991-2002) ===Directories=== *[http://www.pagesjaunes-dz.com/index.php?lang=en Yellow Pages of Algeria] ==External links== {{portal}} {{sisterlinks|Algeria}} '''Government''' *[http://www.el-mouradia.dz El Mouradia] official presidential site (in French and Arabic) *[http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/index.htm National People's Assembly] official parliamentary site *[http://www.algeria-us.org/ The Embassy of Algeria in Washington, DC] '''News''' *[http://allafrica.com/algeria/ allAfrica.com - ''Algeria''] news headline links *[http://www.elkhabar.com/FrEn/?idc=52 El Khabar] *[http://www.north-africa.com/one.htm The North Africa Journal] business news '''Overviews''' * [http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ag.html CIA World Factbook - ''Algeria''] * [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html Library of Congress - Country Study: ''Algeria''] data as of December 1993 * [http://www.exile.ru/2003-February-20/war_nerd.html Algeria: The Psychos Will Inherit the Earth] - an irreverent look at Algeria's military situation '''Tourism''' *{{wikitravel}} '''Other''' * [http://www.algeria-watch.org/francais.htm Algeria Watch] human rights organization critical of widespread torture practiced by the régime (in French) * [http://www.opendemocracy.net/globalization-institutions_government/algeria_2874.jsp Algeria’s past needs opening, not closing] Analysis on the public referendum held [[29 September]] [[2005]] by Veerle Opgenhaffen and Hanny Megally *[http://algerie.el-annabi.com all City of Algéria] *[http://www.dicodialna.com Algerian-English Online Dictionary] {{Africa}} {{Mediterranean}} [[Category:African Union member states]] [[Category:Algeria| ]] [[Category:Arab League]] [[Category:Peace and Security Council]] [[af:Algerië]] [[am:አልጄሪያ]] [[an:Alcheria]] [[ar:الجزائر]] [[ast:Arxelia]] [[bn:আলজেরিয়া]] [[bs:Alžir]] [[ca:Algèria]] [[cs:Alžírsko]] [[cy:Algeria]] [[da:Algeriet]] [[de:Algerien]] [[el:Αλγερία]] [[eo:Alĝerio]] [[es:Argelia]] [[et:Alžeeria]] [[fa:الجزایر]] [[fi:Algeria]] [[fr:Algérie]] [[gl:Alxeria - الجزائر]] [[ha:Aljeriya]] [[haw:ʻAlekelia]] [[he:אלג'יריה]] [[hi:अल्जीरिया]] [[ht:Aljeri]] [[ia:Algeria]] [[id:Aljazair]] [[io:Aljeria]] [[is:Alsír]] [[it:Algeria]] [[ja:アルジェリア]] [[ko:알제리]] [[kw:Aljeri]] [[la:Algeria]] [[li:Algerieë]] [[lt:Alžyras]] [[lv:Alžīrija]] [[mk:Алжир]] [[ms:Algeria]] [[na:Algeria]] [[nds:Algerien]] [[nl:Algerije]] [[nn:Algerie]] [[no:Algerie]] [[pl:Algieria]] [[pt:Argélia]] [[rm:Algeria]] [[ro:Algeria]] [[ru:Алжир]] [[sa:अल्जीरिया]] [[scn:Algiria]] [[simple:Algeria]] [[sk:Alžírsko]] [[sl:Alžirija]] [[so:Aljeeriya]] [[sq:Algjeria]] [[sr:Алжир]] [[sv:Algeriet]] [[tg:Алҷазоир]] [[th:ประเทศแอลจีเรีย]] [[tl:Algeria]] [[tr:Cezayir]] [[ur:الجزائر]] [[wa:Aldjereye]] [[yi:אַלזשיר]] [[zh:阿尔及利亚]] [[zh-min-nan:Algeria]]utf-8 oAoQDn'''Characters in [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel, [[Atlas Shrugged]].''' {{spoiler}} ==Balph Eubank== Called \"the literary leader of the age\", despite the fact that he is incapable of writing anythinǵZ'Dm{{Infobox_Country| native_name = '''الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية'''
'''Al-Jumhūrīyah al-Jazā’irīyah'''
'''ad-Dīmuqrāţīyah ash-Sha’bīyah''' | common_name = Algeria | image_flag = Flag of Algeria.svg | image_coat = Algeria coa.png | image_map = LocationAlgeria.png | national_motto = (translation): The Revolution by the people and for the people | national_anthem = ''[[Kassaman|Kassaman (Qasaman Bin-Nāzilāt Il-Māḥiqāt)]]''
([[Arabic language|Arabic]]: ''[[Kassaman|We Swear By The Lightning That Destroys]]'') | official_languages = [[Arabic language|Arabic]] | capital = [[Algiers]] | latd=36|la that people actually want to read. What people ''want'' to read, he says, is irrelevant. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to ten thousand copies. He is a member of the ''Looters''. Balph Eubank appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Ben Nealy== A railroad contractor whom ''Dagny Taggart'' hires to replace the track on the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged#Rio Norte Line|Rio Norte Line]] with [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Metal|Rearden Metal]]. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement, and this is manifest in his inability to organize the project and to make decisions. He relies on Dagny and ''Ellis Wyatt'' to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. Ben Nealy appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Bertram Scudder== Editorial writer for the magazine ''The Future''. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on ''Hank Rearden'' called ''The Octopus''. He is also vocal in support of the [[Things in Atlas Shrugged#Equalization of Opportunity Bill|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]. Bertram Scudder appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Betty Pope== A wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with ''James Taggart'' that coincides with the overall meaninglessness of her life. She regrets having to wake up every morning because she has to face another empty day. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. Betty Pope appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 142 and 161. ==Brakeman== An unnamed employee working on the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Comet|Taggart Comet]] train. ''Dagny Taggart'' hears Brakeman whistling the theme of a concerto. When she asks him what piece it is from, he says it is [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged#Halley's Fifth Concerto|Halley's Fifth Concerto]]. When Dagny points out that ''Richard Halley'' only wrote four concertos, Brakeman claims he made a mistake and he doesn't recall where he heard the piece. Later, after Dagny instructs the train crew how to proceed, he asks a co-worker who she is, and learns she is the one who runs [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Taggart Transcontinental|Taggart Transcontinental]]. It is later discovered that the unknown brakeman is one of the strikers, when Dagny meets him in the valley. Brakeman appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112 and 113. ==Cherryl Brooks== Dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. She is horrible to Dagny until the night before she commits suicide, when she confesses to Dagny that she married Jim, thinking she was marrying Dagny. Like Eddie Willers, Cherryl is one representation of a \"good\" person who lacks the extraordinary capacities of the primary heroes of the novel. ==Claude Slagenhop== The president of political organization [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Friends of Global Progress]] (which is supported by ''Philip Rearden''), and one of ''Lillian Rearden's'' friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. He is not bothered by the fact that action unguided by ideas is random and pointless. Global Progress is a sponsor of the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Equalization of Opportunity Bill]]. Claude Slagenhop appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Cuffy Meigs== A Looter who's assigned by Wesley Mouch to keep watch over the workings of ''Taggart Transcontinental,'' and later assumes control over the company after Dagny Taggart leaves. He carries a pistol and wears a military uniform. The \"intellectual heir\" of Dr. Robert Stadler, Meigs comes to a fitting end at the hands of ''Project X.'' ==Dagny Taggart== The main character in Atlas Shrugged (also the name of her namesake ''Mrs. Nathaniel Taggart''). Dagny is Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. She is the female hero, the counterpart to John Galt, her journey is the journey of the reader exploring and understanding Galts philosophy. Those in the know know she is the one who really runs the railroad. In the course of the novel, she forms romantic liaisons with three men of ability. Dagny appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 113, 114, 132, 133, 141, 145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 152, and 161. ==Dan Conway== The middle-aged president of the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged|Phoenix-Durango]] railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]] is used to drive his business out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. He claims that somebody had to be sacrificed, it turned out to be him, and he has no right to complain, bowing to the will of the majority. When pressed he says he doesn't really believe this is right, but he can't understand why it is wrong and what the alternative might be. He is trapped by a moral code that makes him a willing victim, and rather than challenge that morality, he simply gives up. Dan Conway appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 145 and 146, and is mentioned in section 148. ==Dick McNamara== A contractor who finished the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|San Sebastian Line]] and who is hired to lay the new [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Rearden Metal]] track for the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. Before he gets a chance to do so, he mysteriously disappears. Dick McNamara is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 133 and 141. ==Eddie Willers== Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operation at Taggart Transcontinental. He grew up with ''Dagny Taggart''. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and he followed in their footsteps. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]]. He is also secretly in love with Dagny. Willers is generally assumed to represent the common man: someone who does not possess the promethian creative ability of The Strikers, but nevertheless matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. Eddie Willers appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 117, 132, 133, 141, 151, and 152. ==Ellis Wyatt== The head of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged|Wyatt Oil]]. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] by discovering oil there. Of all the disappearances of industrialists in the novel, Wyatt's, involving the fiery destruction of his oil wells, is surely the most dramatic. Ellis Wyatt is mentioned or appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 132, 146, 147, 148, and 152. ==Francisco d'Anconia== One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]]. By all accounts, he is a worthless millionaire playboy, owner by inheritance of the world's largest copper mining empire, the man behind the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]], and a childhood friend and first love of ''Dagny Taggart''. Francisco began working on the sly as a teenager in order to learn all he could about business. While still a student at [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]], he began working at a copper foundry, and investing in the stock market. By the time he was twenty he had made enough to purchase the foundry. He began working for [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged|d'Anconia Copper]] as assistant superintendent of a mine in Montana, but was quickly promoted to head of the New York office. He took over d'Anconia Copper at age 23, after the death of his father. When he was 26, Francisco secretly joined the ''Strikers'' and began to slowly destroy the d'Anconia empire so the ''Looters'' could not get it. He adopted the persona of a worthless playboy, by which he is known to the world, as an effective cover. His full name is Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastian d'Anconia. ''According to [mailto:areed2@calstatela.edu Adam Reed] ([http://www.monmouth.com/~adamreed/Ayn_Rands_jewish_years/Who_is_Francisco_DAnconia.html Who is Francisco D'Anconia?]), d'Anconia is the only Hero-class character who is recognizably Jewish (not in the religious, but in the historical sense, like Ayn Rand herself).'' Francisco D'Anconia appears or is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 132, 141, 144, 151, and 152 - this last section includes a detailed history of his life. ==Hank Rearden== One of the central characters in [[Atlas Shrugged]]. He is the founder of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged|Rearden Steel]] and the inventor of [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Rearden Metal]]. He lives in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Philadelphia]] with his wife ''Lillian'', his brother ''Philip'', and an elderly woman known only as ''Rearden's Mother'', all of whom he supports. [[Gwen Ives]] is his secretary. The character of Hank Rearden has two important roles to play in the novel. First, he is in the same position as the reader in that he is aware that there is something wrong with the world but is not sure what it is. Rearden is guided toward an understanding of the solution through his friendship with ''Francisco d'Anconia'', who does know the secret, and by this mechanism the reader is also prepared to understand the secret when it is revealed explicitly in [[Atlas_Shrugged/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]]. Second, Rearden is used to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas_Shrugged|theory of sex]]. ''Lillian Rearden'' cannot appreciate Hank Rearden's virtues, and she is portrayed as being disgusted by sex. ''Dagny Taggart'' clearly does appreciate Rearden's virtues, and this appreciation evolves into a sexual desire. Rearden is torn by a contradiction because he accepts the premises of the traditional view of sex as a lower instinct, while responding sexually to Dagny, who represents his highest values. Rearden struggles to resolve this internal conflict and in doing so illustrates Rand's sexual theory. Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121, 132, 147, and 161, and is mentioned in sections 114 and 131. ==Hugh Akston== Identified as \"One of the last great advocates of reason.\" He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]], where he taught ''Francisco d'Anconia'', ''John Galt'', and ''Ragnar Danneskjöld''. He was, along with ''Robert Stadler'', a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. Hugh Akston is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==James Taggart== The President of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]] and a leader of the ''Looters''. Taggart is an expert influence peddler who is incapable of making decisions on his own. He relies on his sister ''Dagny Taggart'' to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor. As the novel progresses, the moral philosophy of the Looters is revealed: it is a code of [[nihilism]]. The goal of this code is to not exist, to become a zero. Taggart struggles to remain unaware that this is his goal. He maintains his pretence that he wants to live, and becomes horrified whenever his mind starts to grasp the truth about himself. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to destroy those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. James Taggart appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131, 132, 143, 144, 152 and 161, and is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 146 and 148. ==John Galt== *The question \"[[Who is John Galt?]]\" is asked repeatedly throughout [[Atlas Shrugged]]. Late into the book we learn that '''John Galt''' is the man who stopped the motor of the world and the leader of the ''Strikers''. He is also the same character as the '''Mystery Worker'''. The son of an [[Ohio]] garage mechanic, Galt left home at age 12 and began college at [[Things_in_Atlas_Shrugged#Patrick_Henry_University|Patrick Henry University]] at age 16. There he befriended [[#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] and [[#Ragnar Danneskjöld|Ragnar Danneskjöld]], all three of whom double-majored in [[physics]] and [[philosophy]]. They were the cherished students of the brilliant scientist [[#Robert Stadler|Robert Stadler]] and the brilliant philsopher [[#Hugh Akston|Hugh Akston]]. After graduating, Galt became an [[engineer]] at the [[Companies_in_Atlas_Shrugged|Twentieth Century Motor Works]] where he designed a revolutionary new motor powered by ambient static electricity with the potential to change the world. Like [[#Ellis Wyatt|Ellis Wyatt]], he has created what many had for years said was impossible. When the company owners decided to run the factory by the collectivist maxim, 'By each according to his ability, to each according to his need', Galt organized a successful [[labor strike]], proclaiming his promise to stop the motor of the world. He began traversing the globe, meeting the world's most successful businessmen, systematically convincing them to follow in his footsteps; one by one, they began abandoning their business empires (which, Galt convinced them, were doomed to failure anyhow, given the increased nationalization of industry by the government). Secretly, these captains of industry, led by Galt and [[banker]] [[#Midas Mulligan|Midas Mulligan]], had created their own society — a secret enclave of rational individualists living in \"[[Things_in_Atlas_Shrugged#Galt's_Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]\", a town secluded high in a wilderness of mountains. [[#Dagny Taggert|Dagny]] accidentally finds the town — and a shocked John Galt — by crash-landing a light [[aircraft]] while pursuing [[#Quentin Daniels|Quentin Daniels]]. Since everyone across the country is repeating the phrase, \"Who is John Galt?\", it is natural that many people have attempted to answer that question. The phrase becomes an expression of helplessness and despair at the current state of the world. ''Dagny Taggart'' hears a number of [[Things_in_Atlas_Shrugged#John_Galt_Legends|John Galt Legends]] before finding the real John Galt and eventually joining his cause, and learning that all of the stories have an element of truth to them. :''There is a clothing store in [[Vail, Colorado]] called John Galt Ltd. One presumes that, on occasion, a customer unknowingly walks in and asks, \"Who is John Galt?\"'' ==Lillian Rearden== The wildly unsupportive wife of ''Hank Rearden''. They have been married eight years as the novel begins. Lillian is a ''Moocher'' and a frigid bitch who seeks to destroy her husband. She compares being Rearden's wife with owning the world's most powerful horse. Since she cannot comfortably ride a horse that goes too fast, she must bridle it down to her level, even if that means it will never reach its full potential and its power will be greviously wasted. Lillian also serves to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas_Shrugged|Theory of sex]]. She believes sex is a base animal instinct and that sexual indulgence is a sign of moral weakness. She is incapable of feeling this kind of desire, which she believes testifies to her moral superiority. However, according to the theory of sex Lillian's lack of sexual capacity results from her inability to experience value in herself; she is therefore unable to respond sexually when she experiences value in others. Lillian tolerates sex with her husband only because she is 'realistic' enough to know he is just a brute who requires satisfaction of his brute instincts. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161 she indicates that she abhors ''Francisco d'Anconia'', because she believes he is a sexual adventurer. Lillian Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161. ==The Looters== A group of evil characters sometimes referred to as \"James Taggart and his friends\". They are similar to the Moochers. The Looters consist of men and women who use force to obtain value from those who produce it. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Looters include: Mr. Thompson, Balph Eubank, Floyd Ferris, James Taggart, Orren Boyle, Paul Larkin, Robert Stadler, Simon Pritchett, Wesley Mouch, and Cuffy Miegs. ==Midas Mulligan== A wealthy banker who mysteriously disappears in protest after he is given a court order to loan money to an incompetent loan applicant. Midas Mulligan is responsible for the creation and distribution of the money that is exclusively used in Galt's Gulch, and is the original owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. He is also responsible for the production of the money used there. ==The Moochers== A group of characters, similar to the ''Looters'', who use guilt as a weapon against those who produce value. They seek to destroy the producers despite the fact that they are dependent upon them. The Moochers include ''Lillian Rearden'', ''Philip Rearden'', and Hank Rearden's ''mother''. It has been suggested that the term \"mooch\" received its beginning in this novel and is actually intended to be spelled \"mouch,\" referring to infamous character of Wesley Mouch. ==Mort Liddy== A [[hack writer|hack]] composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies that no one listens to. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of ''Lillian Rearden's'' friends and a member of the cultural elite. Mort Liddy appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Mr. Mowen== The president of the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged|Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc.]] of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. He is unable to grapple with abstract issues, and is frightened of anything controversial. Dagny Taggart hires Mr. Mowen to produce switches made of [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Rearden Metal]]. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be ridden and cajoled before he is willing to accept the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. Mr. Mowen appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Mystery Worker== A menial worker for [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged|Taggart Transcontinental]] who often dines with ''Eddie Willers'' in the employee's cafeteria. Eddie finds him very easy to talk to, and Mystery Worker not-so-subtly leads him on so that Eddie reveals important information about ''Dagny Taggart'' and Taggart Transcontinental. Eddie tells him which suppliers and contractors Dagny is most dependent on, and with remarkable consistency, those are the next men to disappear mysteriously. Mystery Worker is actually John Galt. Mystery Worker appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 133. ==The unnamed newsstand owner== He works in the Taggart Terminal. Twenty years ago he owned a cigarette factory but it went under, and he's been working at his newsstand ever since. He is a collector of cigarettes, and knows every brand ever made. He occasionally chats with ''Dagny Taggart'' when she comes by. On one occasion, in [[Structure of Atlas_Shrugged|section]] 132, after Dagny asks him about his collection, he bemoans the fact that there are no new brands and the old brands are all disappearing. He examines a cigarette given to Dagny by ''Hugh Akston'', but it is a new brand that he has never seen before. It carries the sign of the dollar. In his first appearance, the Newsstand Owner likens the fire of a cigarette to the fire of the mind. This alludes to the Greek myth of Prometheus, who gave mankind the gift of fire, allowing it to raise itself up and become civilized. In [[Atlas Shrugged]], it is the mind of man that raises mankind. Thus the cigarettes become symbolic of the men of the mind. The disappearance of the old brands represents the disappearance of the men of the mind, and the Newsstand Owner's discovery of the new brand foreshadows Dagny's discovery of a new kind of men of the mind. ==Orren Boyle== The head of [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged|Associated Steel]] and a friend of ''James Taggart''. He is one of the ''Looters''. He is an investor in the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|San Sebastian Mines]]. Orren Boyle appears or is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131, 132, 144, and 152. ==Owen Kellogg== Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]]. He catches ''Dagny Taggart's'' eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division she decides to make him to its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]], Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. He admits that he loves his work, but that's not enough to keep him. He won't say why he is leaving or what he will do. Later, he is noticed working as transient labor by the unsuccessful/unmotivated businessman ''Mr. Mowen''. Owen Kellog eventually reaches, and settles in Atlantis. Owen Kellogg appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112 and 114. ==Paul Larkin== An unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family, and a member of the ''Looters''. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121 Larkin visits [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Philadelphia]] to warn ''Hank Rearden'' of possible trouble from [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Washington]]. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131 he meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. Paul Larkin appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121, 132, and 2A1. ==Philip Rearden== The younger brother of ''Hank Rearden'', and a ''Moocher''. He lives in his brother's home in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Philadelphia]] and is completely dependent on him. He believes that the source of his sustenance is evil and would love to see him destroyed. He has never had a career and spends his time perfunctorily working for various social groups. He becomes resentful of his brother's charity. He then requests that he be granted a job from his brother because he should not have to be burdened by the feeling of inadequacy of not earning his own livelihood. When confronted by his brother on how this job would be a mutually beneficial arrangement, Philip shrugs the argument off as irrelevant and that the job should be entitled to him solely based on his need for money and the fact of familial ties. Philip Rearden appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161. ==Quentin Daniels== An enterprising engineer hired by ''Dagny Taggart'' to reconstruct ''John Galt's'' motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny sets out to meet Quentin in hopes of convincing him to resume his work. John Galt narrowly gets to him first. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to \"[[Things_in_Atlas_Shrugged#Galt's_Gulch|Galt's Gulch]]\" ==Ragnar Danneskjöld== One of the original ''Strikers''. He is now world famous as a pirate. Ragnar was from [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Norway]], the son of a bishop and the scion of one of Norway's most ancient, noble families. He attended [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]] and became friends with ''John Galt'' and ''Francisco d'Anconia'', while studying under ''Hugh Akston'' and ''Robert Stadler''. Ragnar seizes relief ships that are being sent from the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|United States]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Europe]]. No one knows what he does with the goods he seizes. As the novel progresses, Ragnar begins, for the first time, to become active in American waters, and is even spotted in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Delaware Bay]]. Reportedly, his ship is better than any available in the fleets of the world's navies. When he became a pirate, he was disowned and excommunicated. There is a price on his head in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Norway]], [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Portugal]], [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Turkey]]. According to Ayn Rand (verbal report), his name is a tribute to Victor Hugo. In Hugo's first novel, ''Hans of Iceland'', the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. His name may be a pun on 'Dane's Gold', although \"skjöld\" means shield, not gold. Ragnar Danneskjöld appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Rearden's mother== Named Gertrude, she is a ''Moocher'' who lives with her son ''Hank Rearden'' at his home in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Philadelphia]]. She is involved in church-based charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She insults him by saying he was always selfish, even as a child. She dotes on her weak son ''Philip Rearden''. Rearden's mother appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Richard Halley== Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141 we learn that Richard Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24 his opera ''Phaethon'' was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. (It was based on the [[Greek mythology|Greek myth]] in which [[Phaethon]] steals his father's chariot, and dies in an audacious attempt to drive the sun across the sky. Halley changed the story, though, into one of triumph, in which Phaethon succeeds.) For years Halley wrote in obscurity. After nineteen years, ''Phaethon'' was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. It appears his critics felt he had paid his dues long enough that he was at last worthy of their approval. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. Richard Halley is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 112, 114, 133, and 141, and appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 152. ==Dr. Robert Stadler== A former professor at Patrick Henry University, mentor to ''Francisco d'Anconia'', ''John Galt'' and ''Ragnar Danneskjöld''. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including the instrument of his demise: ''Project X.'' ==Dr. Simon Pritchett== The prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Patrick Henry University]] and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He is also a ''Looter''. He is certainly representative of the philosophy of the age - he is a crude reductionist who believes man is nothing but a collection of chemicals; he believes there are no standards, that definitions are fluid, reason is a superstition, that it is futile to seek meaning in life, and that the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. He explains all this in his book ''The Metaphysical Contradictions of the Universe'', and at cocktail parties. Dr. Pritchett appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==The Strikers== People of the mind who go on strike because they do not appreciate being exploited by ''the Looters'' and demonized by a society who depends on them for its very existence. The leader of the Strikers is ''John Galt''. Other Strikers include: Hugh Akston, Francisco d'Anconia, Ragnar Danneskjöld, Richard Halley, and the Brakeman. Characters who join the Strikers in the course of the book include: Dagny Taggart, Ellis Wyatt, Hank Rearden, Dick McNamara, and Owen Kellogg. ==Mr. Thompson== The \"[[Head of State|Head of the State]],\" which essentially means that he's the [[President of the United States]], though he's never specifically referred to as such. In the world of ''Atlas Shrugged'' all Presidents and Prime Ministers are refered to simply as \"Head of the State\" and \"Mr. ____.\" This is because countries have been standardized as \"People's States\" which seem to share a common form of government. Thomspon's title can thus be seen as reflecting the fact that the US is in the process of evolving into one of these \"People's States.\" One of the Looters, he's not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modelled him on President [[Harry S. Truman]]. ==Wesley Mouch== A member of the ''Looters'' and, at the beginning of the storyline, the incompetent lobbyist whom ''Hank Rearden'' reluctantly employs in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Washington]]. Initially Wesley Mouch is the least powerful and least significant of the Looters - the other members of this group feel they can look down upon him with impunity. Eventually he becomes the most powerful Looter, and the [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|country's]] economic dictator, thereby illustrating Rand's belief that a government-run economy places too much power in the hands of incompetent bureaucrats who would never have positions of similar influence in a private sector business. Wesley Mouch appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 131 and is mentioned in section 161. ==See also== *[[Minor characters in Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Lists of fictional characters|Atlas Shrugged characters]]utf-8lch mirage), Rearden Metal, a sonic [[death ray]] (\"Project X\"), voice activated door locks (Gulch power station), motors powered by [[static electricity]], palm-activated door locks (Galt's NY lab), shale-oil drilling, and a [[nerve]]-induction [[torture]] machine. ===Traffic Signals=== Early on, the book mentions the \"screech\" of a traffic signal as it changes. This implies the older technology of mechanical traffic signals, the kind which displayed a pennant or flag indicating stop or go, and the inverse indicator in the opposite direction. Traffic signals using lights have been around for over 40 years, so anything of this type is very old compared to today. ===Project X=== Project X is an invention of the scientists at the state science institute, requiring tons of Rearden Metal. Basically, it is a \"death ray\", and is capable of destroying anything. The scientists claim that the project will be used to preserve peace and squash rebellion. It is destroyed towards the end of the book, and emits a pulse of radiation that destroys everything in the surrounding area, including Cuffy Meigs and Dr. Stadler, as well as the Taggart Bridge. ===Rearden Metal=== Rearden metal is a [[Fictional_chemical_substance#Fictional_compounds_and_alloys|fictitious metal]] alloy invented by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]]. It is lighter than traditional [[steel]] but stronger, and is to steel what steel was to [[iron]]. It is described as greenish-blue. Among its ingredients are iron and [[copper]]. Initially no one is willing to use Rearden metal because no one wants to stick his neck out and be the first to try it. Finally, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] places an order for Rearden Metal when she needs rails to rebuild the dying [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. The first thing made from Rearden metal is a [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|bracelet]]. Rearden metal is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 114, 121, 131, 148 and 161. ===Galt's Motor=== John Galt invented a new type of electrical apparatus described in the book as a [[motor]]. However, it does not operate like a motor in the common use of the word today: it is capable of harnessing, transforming and applying energy in many ways other than mechanical. Galt's Motor was capable of [[Radio jamming|jamming]] all [[radio receiver]]s on Earth, and completely destroying the contents of Galt's [[booby-trap]]ped laboratory without causing [[collateral damage|collateral structural damage]]. Though Rand describes it as turning [[static electricity ]] into useful [[mechanical work]], its operation is more reminiscent of modern speculation about [[zero-point energy]]. Dagny discovers a discarded prototype of the motor and it is superficially described in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] Part 1, Chapter 9. Galt shows Dagny the motor and describes it in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] Part 3, Chapter 1. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Fictional technology|Atlas Shrugged]]utf-8 |mDo'''Technology in Atlas Shrugged''', [[Ayn Rand]]'s novel includes a variety of technological products and devices. In addition to real world technology ([[aircraft]], [[automobile]]s, [[diesel engine]]s, [[phonograph record]]s, [[radio]]s, [[telephone]]s, [[television]], and [[traffic signals]]) [[Atlas Shrugged]] also includes various fictional technologies or fictional variants on real inventions. {{spoilers}} ==Fictional technology== Fictional inventions mentioned in the book include refractor rays (Guust a few hundred-thousand dollars of [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Boyle's]] own money, and hundreds of millions of dollars in government grants. Boyle used this money to buy out his competitors, and now relies on influence peddling and political favors to run his business. Associated Steel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 and 171. ==Ayers Music Publishing Company== Ayers Music Publishing Company is the publisher of the music of [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Richard Halley]]. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] contacts [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Mr. Ayers]] to inquire as to the existence of [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Halley's Fifth Concerto]]. Ayers Music Publishing Company is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 114. ==Barton and Jones== The company, located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Denver]], that supplies food for the workers rebuilding the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]]. They go bankrupt in the middle of the project. Barton and James is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==d'Anconia Copper== A copper and mining company founded by [[Minor Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Sebastian d'Anconia]] in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Argentina]] during the time of the Inquisition. Each man who ran the company saw it grow by 10% in his lifetime, so by the time [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Francisco d'Anconia]] heads the company it is the largest in the world. His dream, from childhood, is to increase the size of the company by 100%. d'Anconia Copper is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 152 and 171. ==Hammond Motors== A car company in Colorado. They make the best cars on the market until the founder disappears. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] buys a Hammond on his trip to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Incorporated Tool== A company that is contracted to deliver drill heads to Taggart Transcontinental but who fail to do this. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Phoenix-Durango== The Phoenix-Durango is an old, small railroad located in the Southwest run by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dan Conway]] that has been insignificant for most of its existence. However, the Phoenix-Durango grows rapidly when [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Ellis Wyatt]] revives the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] and Taggart Transcontinental's [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] fails to service Wyatt adequately. Later, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|James Taggart]] conspires to get the Phoenix-Durango driven out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] with the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule]]. The Phoenix-Durango is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 131 (alluded to), 132, 145, 146, 147 and 152. ==Rearden Coal== A business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Limestone== A business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] prior to the founding of Rearden Steel. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Ore== The first business founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]]. It is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121. ==Rearden Steel== A company founded by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] about ten years prior to the start of the story in the novel. Rearden bought an abandoned steel mill in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Philadelphia]] at a time when all the experts thought that such a venture would be hopeless. He turned it into the most reliable and profitable steel company in the country. As [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] struggles to save Taggart Transcontinental, she becomes increasingly dependent on Rearden Steel. Rearden Steel is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 114, 121, 131 (alluded to), 161 and 162. ==Summit Casting== A company in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Illinois]] under contract to deliver rail spikes to Taggart Transcontinental. They go bankrupt before they can deliver, prompting [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] to fly to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Chicago]] and buy the company to get it started again. Summit Casting is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Taggart Transcontinental== The fictional [[railroad]] run by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]]. Her commitment to the railroad creates one of the book's major conflicts. Taggart Transcontinental was founded by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Nathaniel Taggart]] who lived three generations (or so) prior to Dagny's generation. It was built without any grants, loans, or favors from the government, and was the last railroad that was still owned and controlled by its founder's descendants. Its motto is, ''From Ocean to Ocean''. The 'flagship' of Taggart Transcontinental is the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Taggart Comet]] which runs from [[Places in Atlas Shrugged|New York]] to [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|San Francisco]], and which has never been late. ==United Locomotive Works== An incompetent company that is supposed to deliver Diesel engines to Taggart Transcontinental. The order is delayed in perpetuity, and the [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|president]] of the company refuses to ever give a straight answer as to why this is so. The United Locomotive Works is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 133 and 141. ==Wyatt Oil== The oil company run by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Ellis Wyatt]]. Wyatt's father had squeezed a living out of the oil fields in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], but when Ellis Wyatt took over the business took off. He discovered a technique for extracting oil from wells that had been abandoned as dried up. The success of Wyatt Oil that followed this discovery suddenly and unexpectedly turned [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] into the leading economy in the country. Wyatt Oil traditionally relied on Taggart Transcontinental's [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] to ship its oil. But when that company could not grow fast enough to keep up with the booming [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]] economy, Wyatt started using the small but well-managed Phoenix-Durango instead. This prompted [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|James Taggart]] to make deals with his friends to drive the Phoenix-Durango out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]]. Afterwards, [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] has to rebuild the [[Things in Atlas_Shrugged|Rio Norte Line]] so it can supply transportation to Wyatt Oil - if she fails, the economy of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Colorado]], and of the whole country, could collapse. Wyatt Oil is mentioned in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 111, 132 and 171. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]] [[Category:Fictional companies|Atlas Shrugged]]utf-8 **2YDp'''Companies in Atlas Shrugged''', the [[Ayn Rand]] [[novel]], generally, are divided into two groups, these that are operated by sympathetic characters are given the name of the owner, while companies operated by evil or incompetent characters are given generic names. In [[Atlas Shrugged]] men who give their names to their companies all become [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Strikers]] in due time. ==Amalgamated Switch and Signal== A company run by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Mr. Mowen]] and located in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|Connecticut]]. They have supplied Taggart Transcontinental for generations. [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]] orders [[Technology in Atlas_Shrugged|Rearden Metal]] switches from them. Amalgamated Switch and Signal appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 171. ==Associated Steel== Associated Steel is the company owned by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged|Orren Boyle]]. The company was started with jhis sanction was revoked? When Atlas shrugs, relieving himself of the burden of carrying the world, he is revoking his sanction. The concept is supposedly original in the thinking of [[Ayn Rand]] and is foundational to her moral theory. She holds that evil is a parasite on the good and can only exist if the good tolerates it. To quote from [[Atlas_Shrugged/Galts Speech|Galt's Speech]]: \"Evil is impotent and has no power but that which we let it extort from us\", and, \"I saw that evil was impotent...and the only weapon of its triumph was the willingness of the good to serve it.\" Morality requires that we do not sanction our own victimhood, Rand claims. In adhering to this concept, Rand assigns virtue to the trait of [[selfishness]]. Throughout Atlas Shrugged, numerous characters admit that there is something wrong with the world but they cannot put their finger on what it is. The concept they cannot grasp is the sanction of the victim. The first person to grasp the concept is [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]], who vows to stop the motor of the world by getting the creators of the world to withhold their sanction. We first glimpse the concept in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 121 when [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] feels he is duty-bound to support his family, despite their hostility towards him. In [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 146 the principle is stated explicitly by [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dan Conway]]: \"I suppose somebody's got to be sacrificed. If it turned out to be me, I have no right to complain.\" ===Theory of Sex=== In rejecting the traditional [[Christianity|Christian]] altruist [[moral code]], Rand also rejects the sexual code that, in her view, is a [[logical implication]] of [[altruism]]. Rand introduces a theory of sex in ''Atlas Shrugged'' which is purportedly implied by her broader ethical and psychological theories. Far from being a debasing animal instinct, sex is the highest celebration of our greatest values. Sex is a physical response to intellectual and spiritual values—a mechanism for giving concrete expression to values that could otherwise only be experienced in the abstract. One is sexually attracted to those who embody one's values. Those who have base values will be attracted to baseness, to those who also have ignoble values. Those who lack any clear purpose will find sex devoid of meaning. People of high values will respond sexually to those who embody high values. That our [[sexual desire]] is a response to the embodiment of our values in others is a radical and original theory. However, even those who are sympathetic to this theory have criticized it as being incomplete. For instance, since according to Rand the economy is also such an expression of values, and since it is always possible to encounter someone who embodies one's values more completely, this would seem to make [[family]] undesirable. (Indeed, Rand treats \"family\" as a sort of trap.) Furthermore, [[promiscuity]], [[prostitution]], and an endless [[round-robin]] of \"values-driven\" sexual relationships would become inevitable. From this viewpoint, one could say that [[Aldous Huxley]] portrayed the ideal sexual state: ''[[Brave New World]]'' features humans who are incapable of deviating from their caste-oriented \"values\", which naturally include a code of sexual desirability. Her sexual theory is illustrated in the contrasting relationships of [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Hank Rearden]] with [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Lillian Rearden]] and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Dagny Taggart]], and later with Dagny Taggart and [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|John Galt]]. Other important illustrations of this theory are found in: [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|Section]] 152 - recounts Dagny's relationship with [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged|Francisco d'Anconia]]. [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|Section]] 161 - recounts Hank and Lillian Rearden's courtship, and Lillian's attitude towards sex. [[Category:Atlas Shrugged]]utf-8 &1YDr#REDIRECT [[Places in Atlas Shrugged]]utf-8ByDqSome of the important '''concepts''' discussed in [[Atlas Shrugged]] include the ''Sanction of the Victim'' and the ''Theory of Sex''. ===Sanction of the Victim=== The Sanction of the Victim is defined as \"the willingness of the good to suffer at the hands of the [[evil]], to accept the role of sacrificial victim for the '[[sin]]' of creating values.\" The entire story of Atlas Shrugged can be seen as an answer to the question, what would happen if tAtlas_Shrugged#James Taggart|James Taggart]], with the purpose of driving the [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Phoenix-Durango|Phoenix-Durango]] out of [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged#Colorado|Colorado]]. ==Bracelet== The very first thing made from ''Rearden Metal'' is a bracelet. The bracelet is used to illustrate Rand's [[Concepts in Atlas Shrugged#Theory of Sex|Theory of Sex]]. The bracelet symbolizes the value created by [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden's]] long struggle to invent Rearden Metal. When he gives it to [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Lillian Rearden|Lillian Rearden]] as a present in section 121; she says, \"It's fully as valuable as a piece of railroad rails.\" However, Lillian fully grasps the significance of the gift; her snide remark is her way of denigrating her husband's ethos. In section 161, Lillian wears this bracelet at a party thrown on her anniversary. She makes fun of it all night long, and when [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Dagny Taggart|Dagny Taggart]] hears Lillian say she would gladly trade it for a common diamond bracelet, Dagny takes her up on it. Lillian later asks for it back upon realizing her power over her husband was slowly diminishing. Dagny denies the offer. The bracelet appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|sections]] 121 and 161. ==Cub Club== A night club in [[Places in Atlas_Shrugged|New York]]. When [[Characters in Atlas_Shrugged#Francisco d'Anconia|Francisco d'Anconia]] returns to New York in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 141, he explains he came because of a hat-check girl at the Cub Club and the liverwurst at Moe's Delicatessen on Third Avenue. ==Equalization of Opportunity Bill== A bill designed by the [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Looters|Looters]] that proposes to limit the number of businesses any one person can own to one. It is aimed primarily at [[Characters in Atlas Shrugged#Hank Rearden|Hank Rearden]], who uses [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Ore|Rearden Ore]] to guarantee [[Companies in Atlas_Shrugged#Rearden Steel|Rearden Steel]] with a supply of iron ore. By passing this Bill, the Looters can seize Rearden's other businesses for themselves, and then deny him the iron he needs to run his steel mills. The Looters claim the Bill is meant to give a chance to the little guy. The Equalization of Opportunity Bill is appears in [[Structure of Atlas Shrugged|section]] 161. ==Galt's Gulch== A secluded refuge in a valley of Colorado where the men of ability have retreated after relinquishing participation in American society. Nicknamed \"Galt's Gulch\" by its inhabitants, it is in fact the property of \"Midas\" Mulligan, one of the early strikers to follow John Galt's call. This call was to the great men of mind and action to abandon the increasingly slave-state inclinations of a decaying United States - to go on strike - thereby withdrawing the only thing supporting the parasites and looters. Sarcastically nicknamed Midas in the press because everything he seemed to touch turned to gold, Mulligan adopted the nickname during his explosive investment career before dropping out of sight. He had purchased this land among his far-ranging speculative endeavors, and subsequently retreated to it upon his disappearance. Other strikers soon followed him there, including John Galt, renting or buying land for summer retreats as a respite from continuing their search for fellow strikers among the increasingly collapsing American society. Eventually, a society develops in Galt's Gulch as more people live there year-round as the outside world becomes virtually unsafe to visit. We are introduced to Galt's Gulch in the final section of the Novel, in the first chapter, entitled Atlantis. The people live with each other in completely free society and embody everything which is the thesis of the Novel, the appropriate values for a society of Mankind: philosophical, moral, economic, legal, aesthetic, and sexual, among others too numerous to mention. We find industrious, ambitious, happy people continuing their chosen fields of endeavor without the yokes of any taxation or regulation. Conversely, there is a reverence for private property; everything transacted is paid for with the re-invented currency of solid gold coin struck from the reserves of Midas Mulligan's bank which now resides in the valley. The townspeople receive services from the various heroes we have met throughout the Novel, who all now reside and produce in the valley. They purchase power inexpensively from Galt and his invention of the static electricity motor, maintain their anonymity from the outside world via Galt's invention of the air-wave reflection device (giving